Rework the Destination filesystem to make --renderStaticToDisk work

See #9626

75 files changed, 650 insertions, 565 deletions

diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
index 1ff3b8112..1ed020ef1 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
@@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ dir = "/"
 }
 
 func newTestConfig() config.Provider {
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.FromSlash("/my/cool/hugoproject"))
 	cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
 	cfg.Set("dataDir", "data")
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
index 6a051a264..47b5a7fcf 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
@@ -342,6 +342,7 @@ func newPathsSpec(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs, configStr string) *helpers.PathSpec
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(configStr, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	initConfig(fs, cfg)
+	config.SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg)
 	p, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewFrom(fs, cfg), cfg, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	return p
diff --git a/commands/commandeer.go b/commands/commandeer.go
index ced149e7a..1162a4b70 100644
--- a/commands/commandeer.go
+++ b/commands/commandeer.go
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 
 	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 
@@ -42,6 +43,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/bep/debounce"
+	"github.com/bep/overlayfs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
@@ -73,8 +75,10 @@ type commandeer struct {
 	// be fast enough that we could maybe just add it for all server modes.
 	changeDetector *fileChangeDetector
 
-	// We need to reuse this on server rebuilds.
-	destinationFs afero.Fs
+	// We need to reuse these on server rebuilds.
+	// These 2 will be different if --renderStaticToDisk is set.
+	publishDirFs       afero.Fs
+	publishDirServerFs afero.Fs
 
 	h    *hugoBuilderCommon
 	ftch flagsToConfigHandler
@@ -162,7 +166,8 @@ func (c *commandeer) Set(key string, value any) {
 }
 
 func (c *commandeer) initFs(fs *hugofs.Fs) error {
-	c.destinationFs = fs.Destination
+	c.publishDirFs = fs.PublishDir
+	c.publishDirServerFs = fs.PublishDirServer
 	c.DepsCfg.Fs = fs
 
 	return nil
@@ -378,28 +383,63 @@ func (c *commandeer) loadConfig() error {
 	createMemFs := config.GetBool("renderToMemory")
 	c.renderStaticToDisk = config.GetBool("renderStaticToDisk")
 
-	if createMemFs && !c.renderStaticToDisk {
+	if createMemFs {
 		// Rendering to memoryFS, publish to Root regardless of publishDir.
 		config.Set("publishDir", "/")
+		config.Set("publishDirStatic", "/")
+	} else if c.renderStaticToDisk {
+		// Hybrid, render dynamic content to Root.
+		config.Set("publishDirStatic", config.Get("publishDir"))
+		config.Set("publishDir", "/")
+
 	}
 
 	c.fsCreate.Do(func() {
 		fs := hugofs.NewFrom(sourceFs, config)
 
-		if c.destinationFs != nil {
+		if c.publishDirFs != nil {
 			// Need to reuse the destination on server rebuilds.
-			fs.Destination = c.destinationFs
-		} else if createMemFs && c.renderStaticToDisk {
-			// Writes the dynamic output on memory,
-			// while serve others directly from publishDir
+			fs.PublishDir = c.publishDirFs
+			fs.PublishDirServer = c.publishDirServerFs
+		} else {
 			publishDir := config.GetString("publishDir")
-			writableFs := afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewMemMapFs(), publishDir)
-			publicFs := afero.NewOsFs()
-			fs.Destination = afero.NewCopyOnWriteFs(afero.NewReadOnlyFs(publicFs), writableFs)
-			fs.DestinationStatic = publicFs
-		} else if createMemFs {
-			// Hugo writes the output to memory instead of the disk.
-			fs.Destination = new(afero.MemMapFs)
+			publishDirStatic := config.GetString("publishDirStatic")
+			workingDir := config.GetString("workingDir")
+			absPublishDir := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
+			absPublishDirStatic := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDirStatic)
+
+			if c.renderStaticToDisk {
+				// Writes the dynamic output oton memory,
+				// while serve others directly from /public on disk.
+				dynamicFs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+				staticFs := afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewOsFs(), absPublishDirStatic)
+
+				// Serve from both the static and dynamic fs,
+				// the first will take priority.
+				// THis is a read-only filesystem,
+				// we do all the writes to
+				// fs.Destination and fs.DestinationStatic.
+				fs.PublishDirServer = overlayfs.New(
+					overlayfs.Options{
+						Fss: []afero.Fs{
+							dynamicFs,
+							staticFs,
+						},
+					},
+				)
+				fs.PublishDir = dynamicFs
+				fs.PublishDirStatic = staticFs
+			} else if createMemFs {
+				// Hugo writes the output to memory instead of the disk.
+				fs.PublishDir = new(afero.MemMapFs)
+				fs.PublishDirServer = fs.PublishDir
+				fs.PublishDirStatic = fs.PublishDir
+			} else {
+				// Write everything to disk.
+				fs.PublishDir = afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewOsFs(), absPublishDir)
+				fs.PublishDirServer = fs.PublishDir
+				fs.PublishDirStatic = fs.PublishDir
+			}
 		}
 
 		if c.fastRenderMode {
@@ -413,15 +453,15 @@ func (c *commandeer) loadConfig() error {
 			}
 
 			changeDetector.PrepareNew()
-			fs.Destination = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.Destination, changeDetector)
-			fs.DestinationStatic = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.DestinationStatic, changeDetector)
+			fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.PublishDir, changeDetector)
+			fs.PublishDirStatic = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.PublishDirStatic, changeDetector)
 			c.changeDetector = changeDetector
 		}
 
 		if c.Cfg.GetBool("logPathWarnings") {
 			// Note that we only care about the "dynamic creates" here,
 			// so skip the static fs.
-			fs.Destination = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.Destination)
+			fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.PublishDir)
 		}
 
 		// To debug hard-to-find path issues.
diff --git a/commands/commands.go b/commands/commands.go
index 01f076d1a..99b0866e5 100644
--- a/commands/commands.go
+++ b/commands/commands.go
@@ -18,10 +18,9 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/paths"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	hpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
@@ -243,14 +242,14 @@ func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) timeTrack(start time.Time, name string) {
 
 func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) getConfigDir(baseDir string) string {
 	if cc.cfgDir != "" {
-		return paths.AbsPathify(baseDir, cc.cfgDir)
+		return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, cc.cfgDir)
 	}
 
 	if v, found := os.LookupEnv("HUGO_CONFIGDIR"); found {
-		return paths.AbsPathify(baseDir, v)
+		return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, v)
 	}
 
-	return paths.AbsPathify(baseDir, "config")
+	return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, "config")
 }
 
 func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) getEnvironment(isServer bool) string {
diff --git a/commands/commands_test.go b/commands/commands_test.go
index 43c7f8520..e3ec7bd99 100644
--- a/commands/commands_test.go
+++ b/commands/commands_test.go
@@ -22,8 +22,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
-
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
@@ -38,15 +36,13 @@ import (
 func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	createSite := func(c *qt.C) (string, func()) {
-		dir, clean, err := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		return dir, clean
+	createSite := func(c *qt.C) string {
+		dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
+		return dir
 	}
 
 	c.Run("hugo", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		resp := Execute([]string{"-s=" + dir})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
 		result := resp.Result
@@ -56,8 +52,7 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("hugo, set environment", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		resp := Execute([]string{"-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
 		result := resp.Result
@@ -65,9 +60,8 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("convert toJSON", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		output := filepath.Join(dir, "myjson")
-		defer clean()
 		resp := Execute([]string{"convert", "toJSON", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "-o=" + output})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
 		converted := readFileFrom(c, filepath.Join(output, "content", "p1.md"))
@@ -75,8 +69,7 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("config, set environment", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
 			resp := Execute([]string{"config", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
 			return resp.Err
@@ -86,16 +79,14 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("deploy, environment set", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		resp := Execute([]string{"deploy", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "--target=mydeployment", "--dryRun"})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 		c.Assert(resp.Err.Error(), qt.Contains, `no driver registered for "hugocloud"`)
 	})
 
 	c.Run("list", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
 			resp := Execute([]string{"list", "all", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
 			return resp.Err
@@ -105,8 +96,7 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("new theme", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		themesDir := filepath.Join(dir, "mythemes")
 		resp := Execute([]string{"new", "theme", "mytheme", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "--themesDir=" + themesDir})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -115,8 +105,7 @@ func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	c.Run("new site", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir, clean := createSite(c)
-		defer clean()
+		dir := createSite(c)
 		siteDir := filepath.Join(dir, "mysite")
 		resp := Execute([]string{"new", "site", siteDir, "-e=staging"})
 		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -167,7 +156,7 @@ func TestFlags(t *testing.T) {
 			name: "ignoreVendorPaths",
 			args: []string{"server", "--ignoreVendorPaths=github.com/**"},
 			check: func(c *qt.C, cmd *serverCmd) {
-				cfg := config.New()
+				cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 				cmd.flagsToConfig(cfg)
 				c.Assert(cfg.Get("ignoreVendorPaths"), qt.Equals, "github.com/**")
 			},
@@ -208,7 +197,7 @@ func TestFlags(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(sc.serverPort, qt.Equals, 1366)
 				c.Assert(sc.environment, qt.Equals, "testing")
 
-				cfg := config.New()
+				cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 				sc.flagsToConfig(cfg)
 				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("publishDir"), qt.Equals, "/tmp/mydestination")
 				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("contentDir"), qt.Equals, "mycontent")
@@ -253,14 +242,8 @@ func TestFlags(t *testing.T) {
 func TestCommandsExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	dir, clean, err := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	dirOut, clean2, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-cli-out")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	defer clean()
-	defer clean2()
+	dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
+	dirOut := t.TempDir()
 
 	sourceFlag := fmt.Sprintf("-s=%s", dir)
 
@@ -297,29 +280,35 @@ func TestCommandsExecute(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		b := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
-		hugoCmd := b.getCommand()
-		test.flags = append(test.flags, "--quiet")
-		hugoCmd.SetArgs(append(test.commands, test.flags...))
-
-		// TODO(bep) capture output and add some simple asserts
-		// TODO(bep) misspelled subcommands does not return an error. We should investigate this
-		// but before that, check for "Error: unknown command".
-
-		_, err := hugoCmd.ExecuteC()
-		if test.expectErrToContain != "" {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-			c.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, test.expectErrToContain)
-		} else {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+		name := "hugo"
+		if len(test.commands) > 0 {
+			name = test.commands[0]
 		}
+		c.Run(name, func(c *qt.C) {
+			b := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
+			hugoCmd := b.getCommand()
+			test.flags = append(test.flags, "--quiet")
+			hugoCmd.SetArgs(append(test.commands, test.flags...))
+
+			// TODO(bep) capture output and add some simple asserts
+			// TODO(bep) misspelled subcommands does not return an error. We should investigate this
+			// but before that, check for "Error: unknown command".
+
+			_, err := hugoCmd.ExecuteC()
+			if test.expectErrToContain != "" {
+				c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+				c.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, test.expectErrToContain)
+			} else {
+				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+			}
 
-		// Assert that we have not left any development debug artifacts in
-		// the code.
-		if b.c != nil {
-			_, ok := b.c.destinationFs.(types.DevMarker)
-			c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, false)
-		}
+			// Assert that we have not left any development debug artifacts in
+			// the code.
+			if b.c != nil {
+				_, ok := b.c.publishDirFs.(types.DevMarker)
+				c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, false)
+			}
+		})
 
 	}
 }
@@ -329,11 +318,8 @@ type testSiteConfig struct {
 	contentDir string
 }
 
-func createSimpleTestSite(t testing.TB, cfg testSiteConfig) (string, func(), error) {
-	d, clean, e := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-cli")
-	if e != nil {
-		return "", nil, e
-	}
+func createSimpleTestSite(t testing.TB, cfg testSiteConfig) string {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	cfgStr := `
 
@@ -352,23 +338,23 @@ title = "Hugo Commands"
 		contentDir = cfg.contentDir
 	}
 
-	os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(d, "public"), 0777)
+	os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(dir, "public"), 0777)
 
 	// Just the basic. These are for CLI tests, not site testing.
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "config.toml"), cfgStr)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "config", "staging", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramstaging"`)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "config", "staging", "deployment.toml"), `
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config.toml"), cfgStr)
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "staging", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramstaging"`)
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "staging", "deployment.toml"), `
 [[targets]]
 name = "mydeployment"
 URL = "hugocloud://hugotestbucket"
 `)
 
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "config", "testing", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramtesting"`)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "config", "production", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramproduction"`)
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "testing", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramtesting"`)
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "production", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramproduction"`)
 
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "static", "myfile.txt"), `Hello World!`)
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "static", "myfile.txt"), `Hello World!`)
 
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, contentDir, "p1.md"), `
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, contentDir, "p1.md"), `
 ---
 title: "P1"
 weight: 1
@@ -378,20 +364,20 @@ Content
 
 `)
 
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `
 
 Single: {{ .Title }}
 
 `)
 
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(d, "layouts", "_default", "list.html"), `
+	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "layouts", "_default", "list.html"), `
 
 List: {{ .Title }}
 Environment: {{ hugo.Environment }}
 
 `)
 
-	return d, clean, nil
+	return dir
 }
 
 func writeFile(t testing.TB, filename, content string) {
diff --git a/commands/hugo.go b/commands/hugo.go
index 21140fa43..9033fac90 100644
--- a/commands/hugo.go
+++ b/commands/hugo.go
@@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) build() error {
 		c.hugo().PrintProcessingStats(os.Stdout)
 		fmt.Println()
 
-		if createCounter, ok := c.destinationFs.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter); ok {
+		if createCounter, ok := c.publishDirFs.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter); ok {
 			dupes := createCounter.ReportDuplicates()
 			if dupes != "" {
 				c.logger.Warnln("Duplicate target paths:", dupes)
@@ -634,11 +634,7 @@ func chmodFilter(dst, src os.FileInfo) bool {
 }
 
 func (c *commandeer) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
-	publishDir := c.hugo().PathSpec.PublishDir
-	// If root, remove the second '/'
-	if publishDir == "//" {
-		publishDir = helpers.FilePathSeparator
-	}
+	publishDir := helpers.FilePathSeparator
 
 	if sourceFs.PublishFolder != "" {
 		publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, sourceFs.PublishFolder)
@@ -651,9 +647,9 @@ func (c *commandeer) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint6
 	syncer.NoChmod = c.Cfg.GetBool("noChmod")
 	syncer.ChmodFilter = chmodFilter
 	syncer.SrcFs = fs
-	syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.Destination
+	syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDir
 	if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-		syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.DestinationStatic
+		syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic
 	}
 	// Now that we are using a unionFs for the static directories
 	// We can effectively clean the publishDir on initial sync
diff --git a/commands/hugo_test.go b/commands/hugo_test.go
index 4bead09f0..aca3de2fd 100644
--- a/commands/hugo_test.go
+++ b/commands/hugo_test.go
@@ -36,12 +36,10 @@ title = "Hugo Commands"
 contentDir = "thisdoesnotexist"
 
 `
-	dir, clean, err := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{configTOML: cfgStr, contentDir: contentDir})
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	defer clean()
+	dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{configTOML: cfgStr, contentDir: contentDir})
 
 	cmd.SetArgs([]string{"-s=" + dir, "-c=" + contentDir})
 
-	_, err = cmd.ExecuteC()
+	_, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 }
diff --git a/commands/list_test.go b/commands/list_test.go
index 6f3d6c74d..56a3ee9b9 100644
--- a/commands/list_test.go
+++ b/commands/list_test.go
@@ -29,10 +29,7 @@ func captureStdout(f func() error) (string, error) {
 
 func TestListAll(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	dir, clean, err := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-	defer clean()
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
 
 	hugoCmd := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
 	cmd := hugoCmd.getCommand()
diff --git a/commands/new_site.go b/commands/new_site.go
index 1e3ed710b..e49a60202 100644
--- a/commands/new_site.go
+++ b/commands/new_site.go
@@ -122,8 +122,10 @@ func (n *newSiteCmd) newSite(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 	}
 
 	forceNew, _ := cmd.Flags().GetBool("force")
-
-	return n.doNewSite(hugofs.NewDefault(config.New()), createpath, forceNew)
+	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", createpath)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	return n.doNewSite(hugofs.NewDefault(cfg), createpath, forceNew)
 }
 
 func createConfig(fs *hugofs.Fs, inpath string, kind string) (err error) {
diff --git a/commands/server.go b/commands/server.go
index da1918ede..145a889bb 100644
--- a/commands/server.go
+++ b/commands/server.go
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"os/signal"
+	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"regexp"
 	"runtime"
@@ -148,7 +149,7 @@ func (sc *serverCmd) server(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 	var serverCfgInit sync.Once
 
 	cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) (rerr error) {
-		c.Set("renderToMemory", !sc.renderToDisk)
+		c.Set("renderToMemory", !(sc.renderToDisk || sc.renderStaticToDisk))
 		c.Set("renderStaticToDisk", sc.renderStaticToDisk)
 		if cmd.Flags().Changed("navigateToChanged") {
 			c.Set("navigateToChanged", sc.navigateToChanged)
@@ -330,13 +331,18 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 	port := f.c.serverPorts[i].p
 	listener := f.c.serverPorts[i].ln
 
+	// For logging only.
+	// TODO(bep) consolidate.
 	publishDir := f.c.Cfg.GetString("publishDir")
+	publishDirStatic := f.c.Cfg.GetString("publishDirStatic")
+	workingDir := f.c.Cfg.GetString("workingDir")
 
 	if root != "" {
 		publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, root)
+		publishDirStatic = filepath.Join(publishDirStatic, root)
 	}
-
-	absPublishDir := f.c.hugo().PathSpec.AbsPathify(publishDir)
+	absPublishDir := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
+	absPublishDirStatic := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDirStatic)
 
 	jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Environment: %q", f.c.hugo().Deps.Site.Hugo().Environment)
 
@@ -344,14 +350,14 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 		if f.s.renderToDisk {
 			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from " + absPublishDir)
 		} else if f.s.renderStaticToDisk {
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from memory and static files from " + absPublishDir)
+			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from memory and static files from " + absPublishDirStatic)
 		} else {
 			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from memory")
 		}
 	}
 
-	httpFs := afero.NewHttpFs(f.c.destinationFs)
-	fs := filesOnlyFs{httpFs.Dir(absPublishDir)}
+	httpFs := afero.NewHttpFs(f.c.publishDirServerFs)
+	fs := filesOnlyFs{httpFs.Dir(path.Join("/", root))}
 
 	if i == 0 && f.c.fastRenderMode {
 		jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Running in Fast Render Mode. For full rebuilds on change: hugo server --disableFastRender")
diff --git a/commands/server_test.go b/commands/server_test.go
index 6972bbe69..ea50afd94 100644
--- a/commands/server_test.go
+++ b/commands/server_test.go
@@ -77,6 +77,9 @@ func TestServerFlags(t *testing.T) {
 		{"--renderToDisk", func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
 			assertPublic(c, r, true)
 		}},
+		{"--renderStaticToDisk", func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
+			assertPublic(c, r, true)
+		}},
 	} {
 		c.Run(test.flag, func(c *qt.C) {
 			config := `
@@ -105,9 +108,7 @@ type serverTestResult struct {
 }
 
 func runServerTest(c *qt.C, getHome bool, config string, args ...string) (result serverTestResult) {
-	dir, clean, err := createSimpleTestSite(c, testSiteConfig{configTOML: config})
-	defer clean()
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	dir := createSimpleTestSite(c, testSiteConfig{configTOML: config})
 
 	sp, err := helpers.FindAvailablePort()
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -141,12 +142,15 @@ func runServerTest(c *qt.C, getHome bool, config string, args ...string) (result
 		time.Sleep(567 * time.Millisecond)
 		resp, err := http.Get(fmt.Sprintf("http://localhost:%d/", port))
 		c.Check(err, qt.IsNil)
+		c.Check(resp.StatusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusOK)
 		if err == nil {
 			defer resp.Body.Close()
 			result.homeContent = helpers.ReaderToString(resp.Body)
 		}
 	}
 
+	time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
+
 	select {
 	case <-stop:
 	case stop <- true:
@@ -191,7 +195,7 @@ func TestFixURL(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Run(test.TestName, func(t *testing.T) {
 			b := newCommandsBuilder()
 			s := b.newServerCmd()
-			v := config.New()
+			v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 			baseURL := test.CLIBaseURL
 			v.Set("baseURL", test.CfgBaseURL)
 			s.serverAppend = test.AppendPort
diff --git a/commands/static_syncer.go b/commands/static_syncer.go
index 2eb2b6662..b97c4df7a 100644
--- a/commands/static_syncer.go
+++ b/commands/static_syncer.go
@@ -40,11 +40,7 @@ func (s *staticSyncer) syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents []fsnotify.Event) error {
 	c := s.c
 
 	syncFn := func(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
-		publishDir := c.hugo().PathSpec.PublishDir
-		// If root, remove the second '/'
-		if publishDir == "//" {
-			publishDir = helpers.FilePathSeparator
-		}
+		publishDir := helpers.FilePathSeparator
 
 		if sourceFs.PublishFolder != "" {
 			publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, sourceFs.PublishFolder)
@@ -55,9 +51,9 @@ func (s *staticSyncer) syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents []fsnotify.Event) error {
 		syncer.NoChmod = c.Cfg.GetBool("noChmod")
 		syncer.ChmodFilter = chmodFilter
 		syncer.SrcFs = sourceFs.Fs
-		syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.Destination
+		syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDir
 		if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-			syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.DestinationStatic
+			syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic
 		}
 
 		// prevent spamming the log on changes
@@ -101,19 +97,14 @@ func (s *staticSyncer) syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents []fsnotify.Event) error {
 			if ev.Op&fsnotify.Rename == fsnotify.Rename || ev.Op&fsnotify.Remove == fsnotify.Remove {
 				if _, err := sourceFs.Fs.Stat(relPath); os.IsNotExist(err) {
 					// If file doesn't exist in any static dir, remove it
-					toRemove := filepath.Join(publishDir, relPath)
+					logger.Println("File no longer exists in static dir, removing", relPath)
+					_ = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic.RemoveAll(relPath)
 
-					logger.Println("File no longer exists in static dir, removing", toRemove)
-					if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-						_ = c.Fs.DestinationStatic.RemoveAll(toRemove)
-					} else {
-						_ = c.Fs.Destination.RemoveAll(toRemove)
-					}
 				} else if err == nil {
 					// If file still exists, sync it
 					logger.Println("Syncing", relPath, "to", publishDir)
 
-					if err := syncer.Sync(filepath.Join(publishDir, relPath), relPath); err != nil {
+					if err := syncer.Sync(relPath, relPath); err != nil {
 						c.logger.Errorln(err)
 					}
 				} else {
diff --git a/common/paths/path.go b/common/paths/path.go
index 63e831ff6..3a7f3e790 100644
--- a/common/paths/path.go
+++ b/common/paths/path.go
@@ -63,6 +63,15 @@ func (filepathBridge) Separator() string {
 
 var fpb filepathBridge
 
+// AbsPathify creates an absolute path if given a working dir and a relative path.
+// If already absolute, the path is just cleaned.
+func AbsPathify(workingDir, inPath string) string {
+	if filepath.IsAbs(inPath) {
+		return filepath.Clean(inPath)
+	}
+	return filepath.Join(workingDir, inPath)
+}
+
 // MakeTitle converts the path given to a suitable title, trimming whitespace
 // and replacing hyphens with whitespace.
 func MakeTitle(inpath string) string {
diff --git a/config/configProvider.go b/config/configProvider.go
index cf4c3dab3..01a2e8c54 100644
--- a/config/configProvider.go
+++ b/config/configProvider.go
@@ -45,13 +45,23 @@ func GetStringSlicePreserveString(cfg Provider, key string) []string {
 }
 
 // SetBaseTestDefaults provides some common config defaults used in tests.
-func SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg Provider) {
-	cfg.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	cfg.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	cfg.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	cfg.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	cfg.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-	cfg.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+func SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg Provider) Provider {
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "baseURL", "https://example.org")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "resourceDir", "resources")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "contentDir", "content")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "dataDir", "data")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "i18nDir", "i18n")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "layoutDir", "layouts")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "assetDir", "assets")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "archetypeDir", "archetypes")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "publishDir", "public")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "workingDir", "")
+	setIfNotSet(cfg, "defaultContentLanguage", "en")
+	return cfg
+}
+
+func setIfNotSet(cfg Provider, key string, value any) {
+	if !cfg.IsSet(key) {
+		cfg.Set(key, value)
+	}
 }
diff --git a/config/defaultConfigProvider.go b/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
index 46f083ed2..822f421fa 100644
--- a/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
+++ b/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
@@ -75,6 +75,11 @@ func NewFrom(params maps.Params) Provider {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewWithTestDefaults is used in tests only.
+func NewWithTestDefaults() Provider {
+	return SetBaseTestDefaults(New())
+}
+
 // defaultConfigProvider is a Provider backed by a map where all keys are lower case.
 // All methods are thread safe.
 type defaultConfigProvider struct {
diff --git a/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go b/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
index 12b042a5a..826255e73 100644
--- a/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
+++ b/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ disableInlineCSS = true
 func TestUseSettingsFromRootIfSet(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("disqusShortname", "root_short")
 	cfg.Set("googleAnalytics", "ga_root")
 
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index 0d582cf76..a4308ae69 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/russross/blackfriday v1.6.0
 	github.com/rwcarlsen/goexif v0.0.0-20190401172101-9e8deecbddbd
 	github.com/sanity-io/litter v1.5.4
-	github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.1
+	github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.2
 	github.com/spf13/cast v1.4.1
 	github.com/spf13/cobra v1.4.0
 	github.com/spf13/fsync v0.9.0
@@ -98,6 +98,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.11.3 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.16.3 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.11.2 // indirect
+	github.com/bep/overlayfs v0.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cpuguy83/go-md2man/v2 v2.0.1 // indirect
 	github.com/dlclark/regexp2 v1.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/jsonpointer v0.19.5 // indirect
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index 3cb857003..0caef4d66 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -186,6 +186,8 @@ github.com/bep/golibsass v1.0.0 h1:gNguBMSDi5yZEZzVZP70YpuFQE3qogJIGUlrVILTmOw=
 github.com/bep/golibsass v1.0.0/go.mod h1:DL87K8Un/+pWUS75ggYv41bliGiolxzDKWJAq3eJ1MA=
 github.com/bep/gowebp v0.1.0 h1:4/iQpfnxHyXs3x/aTxMMdOpLEQQhFmF6G7EieWPTQyo=
 github.com/bep/gowebp v0.1.0/go.mod h1:ZhFodwdiFp8ehGJpF4LdPl6unxZm9lLFjxD3z2h2AgI=
+github.com/bep/overlayfs v0.1.0 h1:1hOCrvS4E5Hf0qwxM7m+9oitqClD9mRjQ1d4pECsVcU=
+github.com/bep/overlayfs v0.1.0/go.mod h1:NFjSmn3kCqG7KX2Lmz8qT8VhPPCwZap3UNogXawoQHM=
 github.com/bep/tmc v0.5.1 h1:CsQnSC6MsomH64gw0cT5f+EwQDcvZz4AazKunFwTpuI=
 github.com/bep/tmc v0.5.1/go.mod h1:tGYHN8fS85aJPhDLgXETVKp+PR382OvFi2+q2GkGsq0=
 github.com/bep/workers v1.0.0 h1:U+H8YmEaBCEaFZBst7GcRVEoqeRC9dzH2dWOwGmOchg=
@@ -564,6 +566,8 @@ github.com/spaolacci/murmur3 v0.0.0-20180118202830-f09979ecbc72/go.mod h1:JwIasO
 github.com/spf13/afero v1.2.2/go.mod h1:9ZxEEn6pIJ8Rxe320qSDBk6AsU0r9pR7Q4OcevTdifk=
 github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.1 h1:izYHOT71f9iZ7iq37Uqjael60/vYC6vMtzedudZ0zEk=
 github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.1/go.mod h1:CtAatgMJh6bJEIs48Ay/FOnkljP3WeGUG0MC1RfAqwo=
+github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.2 h1:xehSyVa0YnHWsJ49JFljMpg1HX19V6NDZ1fkm1Xznbo=
+github.com/spf13/afero v1.8.2/go.mod h1:CtAatgMJh6bJEIs48Ay/FOnkljP3WeGUG0MC1RfAqwo=
 github.com/spf13/cast v1.4.1 h1:s0hze+J0196ZfEMTs80N7UlFt0BDuQ7Q+JDnHiMWKdA=
 github.com/spf13/cast v1.4.1/go.mod h1:Qx5cxh0v+4UWYiBimWS+eyWzqEqokIECu5etghLkUJE=
 github.com/spf13/cobra v1.4.0 h1:y+wJpx64xcgO1V+RcnwW0LEHxTKRi2ZDPSBjWnrg88Q=
diff --git a/helpers/content_test.go b/helpers/content_test.go
index c1ff5c1d2..4b67b44f0 100644
--- a/helpers/content_test.go
+++ b/helpers/content_test.go
@@ -19,10 +19,10 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ func TestBytesToHTML(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestNewContentSpec(t *testing.T) {
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
 	cfg.Set("summaryLength", 32)
diff --git a/helpers/general_test.go b/helpers/general_test.go
index be9834d3f..75119f01d 100644
--- a/helpers/general_test.go
+++ b/helpers/general_test.go
@@ -20,9 +20,8 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
@@ -30,7 +29,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestResolveMarkup(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	spec, err := NewContentSpec(cfg, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
diff --git a/helpers/path.go b/helpers/path.go
index b302b1569..73970d558 100644
--- a/helpers/path.go
+++ b/helpers/path.go
@@ -459,9 +459,17 @@ func IsDir(path string, fs afero.Fs) (bool, error) {
 	return afero.IsDir(fs, path)
 }
 
-// IsEmpty checks if a given path is empty.
+// IsEmpty checks if a given path is empty, meaning it doesn't contain any regular files.
 func IsEmpty(path string, fs afero.Fs) (bool, error) {
-	return afero.IsEmpty(fs, path)
+	var hasFile bool
+	err := afero.Walk(fs, path, func(path string, info os.FileInfo, err error) error {
+		if info.IsDir() {
+			return nil
+		}
+		hasFile = true
+		return filepath.SkipDir
+	})
+	return !hasFile, err
 }
 
 // Exists checks if a file or directory exists.
diff --git a/helpers/path_test.go b/helpers/path_test.go
index 6a119a741..3d0617f54 100644
--- a/helpers/path_test.go
+++ b/helpers/path_test.go
@@ -256,55 +256,6 @@ func TestIsDir(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestIsEmpty(t *testing.T) {
-	zeroSizedFile, _ := createZeroSizedFileInTempDir()
-	defer deleteFileInTempDir(zeroSizedFile)
-	nonZeroSizedFile, _ := createNonZeroSizedFileInTempDir()
-	defer deleteFileInTempDir(nonZeroSizedFile)
-	emptyDirectory, _ := createEmptyTempDir()
-	defer deleteTempDir(emptyDirectory)
-	nonEmptyZeroLengthFilesDirectory, _ := createTempDirWithZeroLengthFiles()
-	defer deleteTempDir(nonEmptyZeroLengthFilesDirectory)
-	nonEmptyNonZeroLengthFilesDirectory, _ := createTempDirWithNonZeroLengthFiles()
-	defer deleteTempDir(nonEmptyNonZeroLengthFilesDirectory)
-	nonExistentFile := os.TempDir() + "/this-file-does-not-exist.txt"
-	nonExistentDir := os.TempDir() + "/this/directory/does/not/exist/"
-
-	fileDoesNotExist := fmt.Errorf("%q path does not exist", nonExistentFile)
-	dirDoesNotExist := fmt.Errorf("%q path does not exist", nonExistentDir)
-
-	type test struct {
-		input          string
-		expectedResult bool
-		expectedErr    error
-	}
-
-	data := []test{
-		{zeroSizedFile.Name(), true, nil},
-		{nonZeroSizedFile.Name(), false, nil},
-		{emptyDirectory, true, nil},
-		{nonEmptyZeroLengthFilesDirectory, false, nil},
-		{nonEmptyNonZeroLengthFilesDirectory, false, nil},
-		{nonExistentFile, false, fileDoesNotExist},
-		{nonExistentDir, false, dirDoesNotExist},
-	}
-	for i, d := range data {
-		exists, err := IsEmpty(d.input, new(afero.OsFs))
-		if d.expectedResult != exists {
-			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected result %t got %t", i, d.expectedResult, exists)
-		}
-		if d.expectedErr != nil {
-			if d.expectedErr.Error() != err.Error() {
-				t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q(%#v) got %q(%#v)", i, d.expectedErr, d.expectedErr, err, err)
-			}
-		} else {
-			if d.expectedErr != err {
-				t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q(%#v) got %q(%#v)", i, d.expectedErr, d.expectedErr, err, err)
-			}
-		}
-	}
-}
-
 func createZeroSizedFileInTempDir() (*os.File, error) {
 	filePrefix := "_path_test_"
 	f, e := ioutil.TempFile("", filePrefix) // dir is os.TempDir()
@@ -346,51 +297,6 @@ func createEmptyTempDir() (string, error) {
 	return d, nil
 }
 
-func createTempDirWithZeroLengthFiles() (string, error) {
-	d, dirErr := createEmptyTempDir()
-	if dirErr != nil {
-		return "", dirErr
-	}
-	filePrefix := "_path_test_"
-	_, fileErr := ioutil.TempFile(d, filePrefix) // dir is os.TempDir()
-	if fileErr != nil {
-		// if there was an error no file was created.
-		// but we need to remove the directory to clean-up
-		deleteTempDir(d)
-		return "", fileErr
-	}
-	// the dir now has one, zero length file in it
-	return d, nil
-}
-
-func createTempDirWithNonZeroLengthFiles() (string, error) {
-	d, dirErr := createEmptyTempDir()
-	if dirErr != nil {
-		return "", dirErr
-	}
-	filePrefix := "_path_test_"
-	f, fileErr := ioutil.TempFile(d, filePrefix) // dir is os.TempDir()
-	if fileErr != nil {
-		// if there was an error no file was created.
-		// but we need to remove the directory to clean-up
-		deleteTempDir(d)
-		return "", fileErr
-	}
-	byteString := []byte("byteString")
-
-	fileErr = ioutil.WriteFile(f.Name(), byteString, 0644)
-	if fileErr != nil {
-		// delete the file
-		deleteFileInTempDir(f)
-		// also delete the directory
-		deleteTempDir(d)
-		return "", fileErr
-	}
-
-	// the dir now has one, zero length file in it
-	return d, nil
-}
-
 func deleteTempDir(d string) {
 	_ = os.RemoveAll(d)
 }
diff --git a/helpers/testhelpers_test.go b/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
index 1d1bf73ec..00be3db25 100644
--- a/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -17,9 +17,8 @@ func newTestPathSpec(fs *hugofs.Fs, v config.Provider) *PathSpec {
 }
 
 func newTestDefaultPathSpec(configKeyValues ...any) *PathSpec {
-	v := config.New()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
 	cfg := newTestCfg()
+	fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
 
 	for i := 0; i < len(configKeyValues); i += 2 {
 		cfg.Set(configKeyValues[i].(string), configKeyValues[i+1])
@@ -28,15 +27,7 @@ func newTestDefaultPathSpec(configKeyValues ...any) *PathSpec {
 }
 
 func newTestCfg() config.Provider {
-	v := config.New()
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	v.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	v.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	v.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	v.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-	v.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
-	v.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
 	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
 	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(v)
@@ -49,7 +40,7 @@ func newTestCfg() config.Provider {
 }
 
 func newTestContentSpec() *ContentSpec {
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	spec, err := NewContentSpec(v, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
diff --git a/hugofs/createcounting_fs.go b/hugofs/createcounting_fs.go
index 802806b7a..1737ad5ce 100644
--- a/hugofs/createcounting_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/createcounting_fs.go
@@ -33,10 +33,18 @@ type DuplicatesReporter interface {
 	ReportDuplicates() string
 }
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*createCountingFs)(nil)
+)
+
 func NewCreateCountingFs(fs afero.Fs) afero.Fs {
 	return &createCountingFs{Fs: fs, fileCount: make(map[string]int)}
 }
 
+func (fs *createCountingFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 // ReportDuplicates reports filenames written more than once.
 func (c *createCountingFs) ReportDuplicates() string {
 	c.mu.Lock()
diff --git a/hugofs/decorators.go b/hugofs/decorators.go
index 364a3e23e..be0ae495d 100644
--- a/hugofs/decorators.go
+++ b/hugofs/decorators.go
@@ -23,6 +23,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*baseFileDecoratorFs)(nil)
+)
+
 func decorateDirs(fs afero.Fs, meta *FileMeta) afero.Fs {
 	ffs := &baseFileDecoratorFs{Fs: fs}
 
@@ -151,6 +155,10 @@ type baseFileDecoratorFs struct {
 	decorate func(fi os.FileInfo, filename string) (os.FileInfo, error)
 }
 
+func (fs *baseFileDecoratorFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 func (fs *baseFileDecoratorFs) Stat(name string) (os.FileInfo, error) {
 	fi, err := fs.Fs.Stat(name)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/hugofs/filename_filter_fs.go b/hugofs/filename_filter_fs.go
index 2a11335a3..4ecd1f55a 100644
--- a/hugofs/filename_filter_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/filename_filter_fs.go
@@ -23,6 +23,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*filenameFilterFs)(nil)
+)
+
 func newFilenameFilterFs(fs afero.Fs, base string, filter *glob.FilenameFilter) afero.Fs {
 	return &filenameFilterFs{
 		fs:     fs,
@@ -39,6 +43,10 @@ type filenameFilterFs struct {
 	filter *glob.FilenameFilter
 }
 
+func (fs *filenameFilterFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.fs
+}
+
 func (fs *filenameFilterFs) LstatIfPossible(name string) (os.FileInfo, bool, error) {
 	fi, b, err := fs.fs.(afero.Lstater).LstatIfPossible(name)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/hugofs/filter_fs.go b/hugofs/filter_fs.go
index ec3897d9e..351b4d0f7 100644
--- a/hugofs/filter_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/filter_fs.go
@@ -121,6 +121,10 @@ func NewFilterFs(fs afero.Fs) (afero.Fs, error) {
 	return ffs, nil
 }
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*FilterFs)(nil)
+)
+
 // FilterFs is an ordered composite filesystem.
 type FilterFs struct {
 	fs afero.Fs
@@ -141,6 +145,10 @@ func (fs *FilterFs) Chown(n string, uid, gid int) error {
 	return syscall.EPERM
 }
 
+func (fs *FilterFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.fs
+}
+
 func (fs *FilterFs) LstatIfPossible(name string) (os.FileInfo, bool, error) {
 	fi, b, err := lstatIfPossible(fs.fs, name)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/hugofs/fs.go b/hugofs/fs.go
index 95645204e..436387f13 100644
--- a/hugofs/fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/fs.go
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"strings"
 
+	"github.com/bep/overlayfs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
@@ -26,32 +28,43 @@ import (
 // Os points to the (real) Os filesystem.
 var Os = &afero.OsFs{}
 
-// Fs abstracts the file system to separate source and destination file systems
-// and allows both to be mocked for testing.
+// Fs holds the core filesystems used by Hugo.
 type Fs struct {
 	// Source is Hugo's source file system.
+	// Note that this will always be a "plain" Afero filesystem:
+	// * afero.OsFs when running in production
+	// * afero.MemMapFs for many of the tests.
 	Source afero.Fs
 
-	// Destination is Hugo's destination file system.
-	Destination afero.Fs
+	// PublishDir is where Hugo publishes its rendered content.
+	// It's mounted inside publishDir (default /public).
+	PublishDir afero.Fs
 
-	// Destination used for `renderStaticToDisk`
-	DestinationStatic afero.Fs
+	// PublishDirStatic is the file system used for static files  when --renderStaticToDisk is set.
+	// When this is set, PublishDir is set to write to memory.
+	PublishDirStatic afero.Fs
+
+	// PublishDirServer is the file system used for serving the public directory with Hugo's development server.
+	// This will typically be the same as PublishDir, but not if --renderStaticToDisk is set.
+	PublishDirServer afero.Fs
 
 	// Os is an OS file system.
 	// NOTE: Field is currently unused.
 	Os afero.Fs
 
-	// WorkingDir is a read-only file system
+	// WorkingDirReadOnly is a read-only file system
+	// restricted to the project working dir.
+	WorkingDirReadOnly afero.Fs
+
+	// WorkingDirWritable is a writable file system
 	// restricted to the project working dir.
-	// TODO(bep) get rid of this (se BaseFs)
-	WorkingDir *afero.BasePathFs
+	WorkingDirWritable afero.Fs
 }
 
 // NewDefault creates a new Fs with the OS file system
 // as source and destination file systems.
 func NewDefault(cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
-	fs := &afero.OsFs{}
+	fs := Os
 	return newFs(fs, cfg)
 }
 
@@ -71,23 +84,49 @@ func NewFrom(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
 }
 
 func newFs(base afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
+	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+	publishDir := cfg.GetString("publishDir")
+	if publishDir == "" {
+		panic("publishDir is empty")
+	}
+
+	// Sanity check
+	if IsOsFs(base) && len(workingDir) < 2 {
+		panic("workingDir is too short")
+	}
+
+	absPublishDir := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
+
+	// Make sure we always have the /public folder ready to use.
+	if err := base.MkdirAll(absPublishDir, 0777); err != nil && !os.IsExist(err) {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+
+	pubFs := afero.NewBasePathFs(base, absPublishDir)
+
 	return &Fs{
-		Source:            base,
-		Destination:       base,
-		DestinationStatic: base,
-		Os:                &afero.OsFs{},
-		WorkingDir:        getWorkingDirFs(base, cfg),
+		Source:             base,
+		PublishDir:         pubFs,
+		PublishDirServer:   pubFs,
+		PublishDirStatic:   pubFs,
+		Os:                 &afero.OsFs{},
+		WorkingDirReadOnly: getWorkingDirFsReadOnly(base, workingDir),
+		WorkingDirWritable: getWorkingDirFsWritable(base, workingDir),
 	}
 }
 
-func getWorkingDirFs(base afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *afero.BasePathFs {
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-
-	if workingDir != "" {
-		return afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewReadOnlyFs(base), workingDir).(*afero.BasePathFs)
+func getWorkingDirFsReadOnly(base afero.Fs, workingDir string) afero.Fs {
+	if workingDir == "" {
+		return afero.NewReadOnlyFs(base)
 	}
+	return afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewReadOnlyFs(base), workingDir)
+}
 
-	return nil
+func getWorkingDirFsWritable(base afero.Fs, workingDir string) afero.Fs {
+	if workingDir == "" {
+		return base
+	}
+	return afero.NewBasePathFs(base, workingDir)
 }
 
 func isWrite(flag int) bool {
@@ -117,3 +156,64 @@ func MakeReadableAndRemoveAllModulePkgDir(fs afero.Fs, dir string) (int, error)
 	})
 	return counter, fs.RemoveAll(dir)
 }
+
+// HasOsFs returns whether fs is an OsFs or if it fs wraps an OsFs.
+// TODO(bep) make this nore robust.
+func IsOsFs(fs afero.Fs) bool {
+	var isOsFs bool
+	WalkFilesystems(fs, func(fs afero.Fs) bool {
+		switch base := fs.(type) {
+		case *afero.MemMapFs:
+			isOsFs = false
+		case *afero.OsFs:
+			isOsFs = true
+		case *afero.BasePathFs:
+			_, supportsLstat, _ := base.LstatIfPossible("asdfasdfasdf")
+			isOsFs = supportsLstat
+		}
+		return isOsFs
+	})
+	return isOsFs
+}
+
+// FilesystemsUnwrapper returns the underlying filesystems.
+type FilesystemsUnwrapper interface {
+	UnwrapFilesystems() []afero.Fs
+}
+
+// FilesystemsProvider returns the underlying filesystem.
+type FilesystemUnwrapper interface {
+	UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs
+}
+
+// WalkFn is the walk func for WalkFilesystems.
+type WalkFn func(fs afero.Fs) bool
+
+// WalkFilesystems walks fs recursively and calls fn.
+// If fn returns true, walking is stopped.
+func WalkFilesystems(fs afero.Fs, fn WalkFn) bool {
+	if fn(fs) {
+		return true
+	}
+
+	if afs, ok := fs.(FilesystemUnwrapper); ok {
+		if WalkFilesystems(afs.UnwrapFilesystem(), fn) {
+			return true
+		}
+
+	} else if bfs, ok := fs.(FilesystemsUnwrapper); ok {
+		for _, sf := range bfs.UnwrapFilesystems() {
+			if WalkFilesystems(sf, fn) {
+				return true
+			}
+		}
+	} else if cfs, ok := fs.(overlayfs.FilesystemIterator); ok {
+		for i := 0; i < cfs.NumFilesystems(); i++ {
+			if WalkFilesystems(cfs.Filesystem(i), fn) {
+				return true
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return false
+}
diff --git a/hugofs/fs_test.go b/hugofs/fs_test.go
index 8d52267af..f7203fac9 100644
--- a/hugofs/fs_test.go
+++ b/hugofs/fs_test.go
@@ -23,38 +23,46 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
+func TestIsOsFs(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(Os), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(&afero.MemMapFs{}), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(afero.NewBasePathFs(&afero.MemMapFs{}, "/public")), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(afero.NewBasePathFs(Os, t.TempDir())), qt.Equals, true)
+
+}
+
 func TestNewDefault(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v.Set("workingDir", t.TempDir())
 	f := NewDefault(v)
 
-	c.Assert(f.Source, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+	c.Assert(f.Source, qt.IsNotNil)
 	c.Assert(f.Source, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.OsFs))
-	c.Assert(f.Os, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(f.WorkingDir, qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(f.Os, qt.IsNotNil)
+	c.Assert(f.WorkingDirReadOnly, qt.IsNotNil)
+	c.Assert(f.WorkingDirReadOnly, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.BasePathFs))
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Source), qt.IsTrue)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.WorkingDirReadOnly), qt.IsTrue)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.PublishDir), qt.IsTrue)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Os), qt.IsTrue)
 }
 
 func TestNewMem(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	f := NewMem(v)
 
 	c.Assert(f.Source, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	c.Assert(f.Source, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.MemMapFs))
-	c.Assert(f.Destination, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(f.Destination, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.MemMapFs))
+	c.Assert(f.PublishDir, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+	c.Assert(f.PublishDir, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.BasePathFs))
 	c.Assert(f.Os, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.OsFs))
-	c.Assert(f.WorkingDir, qt.IsNil)
-}
-
-func TestWorkingDir(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
-
-	v.Set("workingDir", "/a/b/")
-
-	f := NewMem(v)
-
-	c.Assert(f.WorkingDir, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(f.WorkingDir, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.BasePathFs))
+	c.Assert(f.WorkingDirReadOnly, qt.IsNotNil)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Source), qt.IsFalse)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.WorkingDirReadOnly), qt.IsFalse)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.PublishDir), qt.IsFalse)
+	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Os), qt.IsTrue)
 }
diff --git a/hugofs/hashing_fs.go b/hugofs/hashing_fs.go
index d7b6329c9..d15ba5863 100644
--- a/hugofs/hashing_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/hashing_fs.go
@@ -22,7 +22,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
-var _ afero.Fs = (*md5HashingFs)(nil)
+var (
+	_ afero.Fs            = (*md5HashingFs)(nil)
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*md5HashingFs)(nil)
+)
 
 // FileHashReceiver will receive the filename an the content's MD5 sum on file close.
 type FileHashReceiver interface {
@@ -45,6 +48,10 @@ func NewHashingFs(delegate afero.Fs, hashReceiver FileHashReceiver) afero.Fs {
 	return &md5HashingFs{Fs: delegate, hashReceiver: hashReceiver}
 }
 
+func (fs *md5HashingFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 func (fs *md5HashingFs) Create(name string) (afero.File, error) {
 	f, err := fs.Fs.Create(name)
 	if err == nil {
diff --git a/hugofs/language_composite_fs.go b/hugofs/language_composite_fs.go
index 65bc89e71..9b4bc4cfd 100644
--- a/hugofs/language_composite_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/language_composite_fs.go
@@ -20,11 +20,14 @@ import (
 )
 
 var (
-	_ afero.Fs      = (*languageCompositeFs)(nil)
-	_ afero.Lstater = (*languageCompositeFs)(nil)
+	_ afero.Fs             = (*languageCompositeFs)(nil)
+	_ afero.Lstater        = (*languageCompositeFs)(nil)
+	_ FilesystemsUnwrapper = (*languageCompositeFs)(nil)
 )
 
 type languageCompositeFs struct {
+	base    afero.Fs
+	overlay afero.Fs
 	*afero.CopyOnWriteFs
 }
 
@@ -33,7 +36,11 @@ type languageCompositeFs struct {
 // to the target filesystem. This information is available in Readdir, Stat etc. via the
 // special LanguageFileInfo FileInfo implementation.
 func NewLanguageCompositeFs(base, overlay afero.Fs) afero.Fs {
-	return &languageCompositeFs{afero.NewCopyOnWriteFs(base, overlay).(*afero.CopyOnWriteFs)}
+	return &languageCompositeFs{base, overlay, afero.NewCopyOnWriteFs(base, overlay).(*afero.CopyOnWriteFs)}
+}
+
+func (fs *languageCompositeFs) UnwrapFilesystems() []afero.Fs {
+	return []afero.Fs{fs.base, fs.overlay}
 }
 
 // Open takes the full path to the file in the target filesystem. If it is a directory, it gets merged
diff --git a/hugofs/nosymlink_fs.go b/hugofs/nosymlink_fs.go
index ff9503257..d3cad5e74 100644
--- a/hugofs/nosymlink_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/nosymlink_fs.go
@@ -30,6 +30,10 @@ func NewNoSymlinkFs(fs afero.Fs, logger loggers.Logger, allowFiles bool) afero.F
 	return &noSymlinkFs{Fs: fs, logger: logger, allowFiles: allowFiles}
 }
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*noSymlinkFs)(nil)
+)
+
 // noSymlinkFs is a filesystem that prevents symlinking.
 type noSymlinkFs struct {
 	allowFiles bool // block dirs only
@@ -67,6 +71,10 @@ func (f *noSymlinkFile) Readdirnames(count int) ([]string, error) {
 	return fileInfosToNames(dirs), nil
 }
 
+func (fs *noSymlinkFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 func (fs *noSymlinkFs) LstatIfPossible(name string) (os.FileInfo, bool, error) {
 	return fs.stat(name)
 }
diff --git a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs.go b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs.go
index 28458155c..a891ba8de 100644
--- a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs.go
@@ -151,6 +151,10 @@ func (r RootMapping) trimFrom(name string) string {
 	return strings.TrimPrefix(name, r.From)
 }
 
+var (
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*RootMappingFs)(nil)
+)
+
 // A RootMappingFs maps several roots into one. Note that the root of this filesystem
 // is directories only, and they will be returned in Readdir and Readdirnames
 // in the order given.
@@ -200,6 +204,10 @@ func (fs *RootMappingFs) Dirs(base string) ([]FileMetaInfo, error) {
 	return fss, nil
 }
 
+func (fs *RootMappingFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 // Filter creates a copy of this filesystem with only mappings matching a filter.
 func (fs RootMappingFs) Filter(f func(m RootMapping) bool) *RootMappingFs {
 	rootMapToReal := radix.New()
diff --git a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
index c650e8f11..c843866fc 100644
--- a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
+++ b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
@@ -20,9 +20,8 @@ import (
 	"sort"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
@@ -31,7 +30,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestLanguageRootMapping(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
 
 	fs := NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewMemMapFs())
diff --git a/hugofs/slice_fs.go b/hugofs/slice_fs.go
index 0f0d3850a..a9a3f1bbc 100644
--- a/hugofs/slice_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/slice_fs.go
@@ -24,9 +24,10 @@ import (
 )
 
 var (
-	_ afero.Fs      = (*SliceFs)(nil)
-	_ afero.Lstater = (*SliceFs)(nil)
-	_ afero.File    = (*sliceDir)(nil)
+	_ afero.Fs             = (*SliceFs)(nil)
+	_ afero.Lstater        = (*SliceFs)(nil)
+	_ FilesystemsUnwrapper = (*SliceFs)(nil)
+	_ afero.File           = (*sliceDir)(nil)
 )
 
 func NewSliceFs(dirs ...FileMetaInfo) (afero.Fs, error) {
@@ -52,6 +53,14 @@ type SliceFs struct {
 	dirs []FileMetaInfo
 }
 
+func (fs *SliceFs) UnwrapFilesystems() []afero.Fs {
+	var fss []afero.Fs
+	for _, dir := range fs.dirs {
+		fss = append(fss, dir.Meta().Fs)
+	}
+	return fss
+}
+
 func (fs *SliceFs) Chmod(n string, m os.FileMode) error {
 	return syscall.EPERM
 }
diff --git a/hugofs/stacktracer_fs.go b/hugofs/stacktracer_fs.go
index d3769f903..4411dbfde 100644
--- a/hugofs/stacktracer_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/stacktracer_fs.go
@@ -24,8 +24,11 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
-// Make sure we don't accidentally use this in the real Hugo.
-var _ types.DevMarker = (*stacktracerFs)(nil)
+var (
+	//  Make sure we don't accidentally use this in the real Hugo.
+	_ types.DevMarker     = (*stacktracerFs)(nil)
+	_ FilesystemUnwrapper = (*stacktracerFs)(nil)
+)
 
 // NewStacktracerFs wraps the given fs printing stack traces for file creates
 // matching the given regexp pattern.
@@ -45,6 +48,10 @@ type stacktracerFs struct {
 func (fs *stacktracerFs) DevOnly() {
 }
 
+func (fs *stacktracerFs) UnwrapFilesystem() afero.Fs {
+	return fs.Fs
+}
+
 func (fs *stacktracerFs) onCreate(filename string) {
 	if fs.re.MatchString(filename) {
 		trace := make([]byte, 1500)
diff --git a/hugolib/config.go b/hugolib/config.go
index b2479cbfe..5d2c6ddf7 100644
--- a/hugolib/config.go
+++ b/hugolib/config.go
@@ -35,7 +35,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/paths"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 	"github.com/pkg/errors"
@@ -359,7 +358,7 @@ func (l configLoader) collectModules(modConfig modules.Config, v1 config.Provide
 		workingDir = v1.GetString("workingDir")
 	}
 
-	themesDir := paths.AbsPathify(l.WorkingDir, v1.GetString("themesDir"))
+	themesDir := cpaths.AbsPathify(l.WorkingDir, v1.GetString("themesDir"))
 
 	var ignoreVendor glob.Glob
 	if s := v1.GetString("ignoreVendorPaths"); s != "" {
diff --git a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
index 0290d2e1c..693dd8575 100644
--- a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
+++ b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
@@ -38,8 +38,8 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 
+	hpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/paths"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
@@ -68,12 +68,12 @@ type BaseFs struct {
 	// This usually maps to /my-project/public.
 	PublishFs afero.Fs
 
-	// A read-only filesystem starting from the project workDir.
-	WorkDir afero.Fs
-
 	// The filesystem used for renderStaticToDisk.
 	PublishFsStatic afero.Fs
 
+	// A read-only filesystem starting from the project workDir.
+	WorkDir afero.Fs
+
 	theBigFs *filesystemsCollector
 
 	// Locks.
@@ -434,21 +434,13 @@ func NewBase(p *paths.Paths, logger loggers.Logger, options ...func(*BaseFs) err
 		logger = loggers.NewWarningLogger()
 	}
 
-	// Make sure we always have the /public folder ready to use.
-	if err := fs.Destination.MkdirAll(p.AbsPublishDir, 0777); err != nil && !os.IsExist(err) {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	publishFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewBasePathFs(fs.Destination, p.AbsPublishDir))
+	publishFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(fs.PublishDir)
 	sourceFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewBasePathFs(fs.Source, p.WorkingDir))
-	publishFsStatic := afero.NewBasePathFs(fs.Source, p.AbsPublishDir)
-
-	// Same as sourceFs, but no decoration. This is what's used by os.ReadDir etc.
-	workDir := afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewReadOnlyFs(fs.Source), p.WorkingDir)
+	publishFsStatic := fs.PublishDirStatic
 
 	b := &BaseFs{
 		SourceFs:        sourceFs,
-		WorkDir:         workDir,
+		WorkDir:         fs.WorkingDirReadOnly,
 		PublishFs:       publishFs,
 		PublishFsStatic: publishFsStatic,
 		buildMu:         lockedfile.MutexAt(filepath.Join(p.WorkingDir, lockFileBuild)),
@@ -638,7 +630,7 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createModFs(
 		if filepath.IsAbs(path) {
 			return "", path
 		}
-		return md.dir, paths.AbsPathify(md.dir, path)
+		return md.dir, hpaths.AbsPathify(md.dir, path)
 	}
 
 	for i, mount := range md.Mounts() {
diff --git a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
index 32d1eef71..a729e63b1 100644
--- a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ func initConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) error {
 
 func TestNewBaseFs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 
 	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
 
@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ theme = ["atheme"]
 }
 
 func createConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("contentDir", "mycontent")
 	v.Set("i18nDir", "myi18n")
 	v.Set("staticDir", "mystatic")
@@ -219,22 +219,19 @@ func TestNewBaseFsEmpty(t *testing.T) {
 func TestRealDirs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	v := createConfig()
+	root, themesDir := t.TempDir(), t.TempDir()
+	v.Set("workingDir", root)
+	v.Set("themesDir", themesDir)
+	v.Set("theme", "mytheme")
+
 	fs := hugofs.NewDefault(v)
 	sfs := fs.Source
 
-	root, err := afero.TempDir(sfs, "", "realdir")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	themesDir, err := afero.TempDir(sfs, "", "themesDir")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	defer func() {
 		os.RemoveAll(root)
 		os.RemoveAll(themesDir)
 	}()
 
-	v.Set("workingDir", root)
-	v.Set("themesDir", themesDir)
-	v.Set("theme", "mytheme")
-
 	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf1"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
index eb6b7433b..358286495 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
@@ -59,13 +59,14 @@ path="github.com/gohugoio/hugoTestModule2"
 		return fmt.Sprintf(tomlConfig, workingDir, moduleOpts)
 	}
 
-	newTestBuilder := func(t testing.TB, moduleOpts string) (*sitesBuilder, func()) {
+	newTestBuilder := func(t testing.TB, moduleOpts string) *sitesBuilder {
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(t)
-		tempDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-modules-variants")
-		b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+		tempDir := t.TempDir()
 		workingDir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "myhugosite")
 		b.Assert(os.MkdirAll(workingDir, 0777), qt.IsNil)
-		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(config.New())
+		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
 		b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir).WithConfigFile("toml", createConfig(workingDir, moduleOpts))
 		b.WithTemplates(
 			"index.html", `
@@ -92,22 +93,18 @@ github.com/gohugoio/hugoTestModule2 v0.0.0-20200131160637-9657d7697877 h1:WLM2bQ
 github.com/gohugoio/hugoTestModule2 v0.0.0-20200131160637-9657d7697877/go.mod h1:CBFZS3khIAXKxReMwq0le8sEl/D8hcXmixlOHVv+Gd0=
 `)
 
-		return b, clean
+		return b
 	}
 
 	t.Run("Target in subfolder", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreImports=true")
-		defer clean()
-
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreImports=true")
 		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/p1/index.html", `<p>Page|https://bep.is|Title: |Text: A link|END</p>`)
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Ignore config", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreConfig=true")
-		defer clean()
-
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreConfig=true")
 		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
@@ -117,9 +114,7 @@ JS imported in module: |
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Ignore imports", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreImports=true")
-		defer clean()
-
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "ignoreImports=true")
 		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
@@ -129,8 +124,7 @@ JS imported in module: |
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Create package.json", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "")
-		defer clean()
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "")
 
 		b.WithSourceFile("package.json", `{
 		"name": "mypack",
@@ -205,8 +199,7 @@ JS imported in module: |
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Create package.json, no default", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "")
-		defer clean()
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "")
 
 		const origPackageJSON = `{
 		"name": "mypack",
@@ -268,8 +261,7 @@ JS imported in module: |
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Create package.json, no default, no package.json", func(t *testing.T) {
-		b, clean := newTestBuilder(t, "")
-		defer clean()
+		b := newTestBuilder(t, "")
 
 		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 		b.Assert(npm.Pack(b.H.BaseFs.SourceFs, b.H.BaseFs.Assets.Dirs), qt.IsNil)
@@ -333,12 +325,13 @@ func TestHugoModulesMatrix(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, m := range testmods[:2] {
 		c := qt.New(t)
 
-		v := config.New()
-
 		workingDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-modules-test")
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 		defer clean()
 
+		v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		v.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+
 		configTemplate := `
 baseURL = "https://example.com"
 title = "My Modular Site"
@@ -670,13 +663,14 @@ func TestModulesSymlinks(t *testing.T) {
 	}()
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	workingDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-mod-sym")
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
-	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-mod-sym")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
 	defer clean()
 
 	const homeTemplate = `
@@ -694,9 +688,9 @@ Data: {{ .Site.Data }}
 	}
 
 	// Create project dirs and files.
-	createDirsAndFiles(workDir)
+	createDirsAndFiles(workingDir)
 	// Create one module inside the default themes folder.
-	themeDir := filepath.Join(workDir, "themes", "mymod")
+	themeDir := filepath.Join(workingDir, "themes", "mymod")
 	createDirsAndFiles(themeDir)
 
 	createSymlinks := func(baseDir, id string) {
@@ -711,7 +705,7 @@ Data: {{ .Site.Data }}
 		}
 	}
 
-	createSymlinks(workDir, "project")
+	createSymlinks(workingDir, "project")
 	createSymlinks(themeDir, "mod")
 
 	config := `
@@ -729,12 +723,12 @@ weight = 2
 
 `
 
-	b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithNothingAdded().WithWorkingDir(workDir)
+	b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithNothingAdded().WithWorkingDir(workingDir)
 	b.WithLogger(loggers.NewErrorLogger())
 	b.Fs = fs
 
 	b.WithConfigFile("toml", config)
-	c.Assert(os.Chdir(workDir), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(os.Chdir(workingDir), qt.IsNil)
 
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
@@ -846,7 +840,10 @@ workingDir = %q
 
 	b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).Running()
 
-	b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(config.New())
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+
+	b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
 
 	b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir).WithConfigFile("toml", tomlConfig)
 	b.WithTemplatesAdded("index.html", `
@@ -968,7 +965,9 @@ workingDir = %q
 
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(c).Running()
 
-		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(config.New())
+		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
 
 		os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workingDir, "content", "blog"), 0777)
 
@@ -1067,7 +1066,7 @@ func TestSiteWithGoModButNoModules(t *testing.T) {
 	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-no-mod")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
@@ -1093,7 +1092,7 @@ func TestModuleAbsMount(t *testing.T) {
 	absContentDir, clean2, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-content")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
index 09e1a331a..d67652dab 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
@@ -597,7 +597,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) reset(config *BuildCfg) {
 	if config.ResetState {
 		for i, s := range h.Sites {
 			h.Sites[i] = s.reset()
-			if r, ok := s.Fs.Destination.(hugofs.Reseter); ok {
+			if r, ok := s.Fs.PublishDir.(hugofs.Reseter); ok {
 				r.Reset()
 			}
 		}
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
index bf52277a9..4616b6dbb 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
@@ -496,9 +496,9 @@ func (h *HugoSites) writeBuildStats() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	// Write to the destination, too, if a mem fs is in play.
-	if h.Fs.Source != hugofs.Os {
-		if err := afero.WriteFile(h.Fs.Destination, filename, js, 0666); err != nil {
+	// Write to the destination as well if it's a in-memory fs.
+	if !hugofs.IsOsFs(h.Fs.Source) {
+		if err := afero.WriteFile(h.Fs.WorkingDirWritable, filename, js, 0666); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
index d71e7c7a4..4a629eedd 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
@@ -489,7 +489,7 @@ func TestMultiSitesRebuild(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[0].Title(), qt.Equals, "new_en_2")
 				c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[1].Title(), qt.Equals, "new_en_1")
 
-				rendered := readDestination(t, fs, "public/en/new1/index.html")
+				rendered := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/en/new1/index.html")
 				c.Assert(strings.Contains(rendered, "new_en_1"), qt.Equals, true)
 			},
 		},
@@ -503,7 +503,7 @@ func TestMultiSitesRebuild(t *testing.T) {
 			[]fsnotify.Event{{Name: filepath.FromSlash("content/sect/doc1.en.md"), Op: fsnotify.Write}},
 			func(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 6)
-				doc1 := readDestination(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
+				doc1 := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
 				c.Assert(strings.Contains(doc1, "CHANGED"), qt.Equals, true)
 			},
 		},
@@ -521,7 +521,7 @@ func TestMultiSitesRebuild(t *testing.T) {
 			func(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 6, qt.Commentf("Rename"))
 				c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[1].Title(), qt.Equals, "new_en_1")
-				rendered := readDestination(t, fs, "public/en/new1renamed/index.html")
+				rendered := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/en/new1renamed/index.html")
 				c.Assert(rendered, qt.Contains, "new_en_1")
 			},
 		},
@@ -538,7 +538,7 @@ func TestMultiSitesRebuild(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 6)
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.AllPages()), qt.Equals, 34)
 				c.Assert(len(frSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 5)
-				doc1 := readDestination(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
+				doc1 := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
 				c.Assert(strings.Contains(doc1, "Template Changed"), qt.Equals, true)
 			},
 		},
@@ -555,9 +555,9 @@ func TestMultiSitesRebuild(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 6)
 				c.Assert(len(enSite.AllPages()), qt.Equals, 34)
 				c.Assert(len(frSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 5)
-				docEn := readDestination(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
+				docEn := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/en/sect/doc1-slug/index.html")
 				c.Assert(strings.Contains(docEn, "Hello"), qt.Equals, true)
-				docFr := readDestination(t, fs, "public/fr/sect/doc1/index.html")
+				docFr := readWorkingDir(t, fs, "public/fr/sect/doc1/index.html")
 				c.Assert(strings.Contains(docFr, "Salut"), qt.Equals, true)
 
 				homeEn := enSite.getPage(page.KindHome)
@@ -700,7 +700,7 @@ END
 
 func checkContent(s *sitesBuilder, filename string, matches ...string) {
 	s.T.Helper()
-	content := readDestination(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
+	content := readWorkingDir(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
 	for _, match := range matches {
 		if !strings.Contains(content, match) {
 			s.Fatalf("No match for\n%q\nin content for %s\n%q\nDiff:\n%s", match, filename, content, htesting.DiffStrings(content, match))
@@ -1170,13 +1170,13 @@ func writeToFs(t testing.TB, fs afero.Fs, filename, content string) {
 	}
 }
 
-func readDestination(t testing.TB, fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) string {
+func readWorkingDir(t testing.TB, fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) string {
 	t.Helper()
-	return readFileFromFs(t, fs.Destination, filename)
+	return readFileFromFs(t, fs.WorkingDirReadOnly, filename)
 }
 
-func destinationExists(fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) bool {
-	b, err := helpers.Exists(filename, fs.Destination)
+func workingDirExists(fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) bool {
+	b, err := helpers.Exists(filename, fs.WorkingDirReadOnly)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/image_test.go b/hugolib/image_test.go
index 5f056e4ad..ac18b9423 100644
--- a/hugolib/image_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/image_test.go
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ func TestImageOps(t *testing.T) {
 	defer clean()
 
 	newBuilder := func(timeout any) *sitesBuilder {
-		v := config.New()
+		v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 		v.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 		v.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org")
 		v.Set("timeout", timeout)
@@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ IMG SHORTCODE: /images/sunset_hu59e56ffff1bc1d8d122b1403d34e039f_90587_129x239_r
 
 	assertImages := func() {
 		b.Helper()
-		b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join(workDir, "public/index.html"), imgExpect)
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", imgExpect)
 		b.AssertImage(350, 219, "public/images/sunset_hu59e56ffff1bc1d8d122b1403d34e039f_90587_350x0_resize_q75_box.a86fe88d894e5db613f6aa8a80538fefc25b20fa24ba0d782c057adcef616f56.jpg")
 		b.AssertImage(129, 239, "public/images/sunset_hu59e56ffff1bc1d8d122b1403d34e039f_90587_129x239_resize_q75_box.jpg")
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go b/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
index d49e29763..e5c9a6856 100644
--- a/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
+++ b/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
@@ -47,6 +47,8 @@ func NewIntegrationTestBuilder(conf IntegrationTestConfig) *IntegrationTestBuild
 		if doClean {
 			c.Cleanup(clean)
 		}
+	} else if conf.WorkingDir == "" {
+		conf.WorkingDir = helpers.FilePathSeparator
 	}
 
 	return &IntegrationTestBuilder{
@@ -157,7 +159,7 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) AssertDestinationExists(filename string, b bool
 }
 
 func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) destinationExists(filename string) bool {
-	b, err := helpers.Exists(filename, s.fs.Destination)
+	b, err := helpers.Exists(filename, s.fs.PublishDir)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
@@ -258,11 +260,7 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) RenameFile(old, new string) *IntegrationTestBui
 
 func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) FileContent(filename string) string {
 	s.Helper()
-	filename = filepath.FromSlash(filename)
-	if !strings.HasPrefix(filename, s.Cfg.WorkingDir) {
-		filename = filepath.Join(s.Cfg.WorkingDir, filename)
-	}
-	return s.readDestination(s, s.fs, filename)
+	return s.readWorkingDir(s, s.fs, filepath.FromSlash(filename))
 }
 
 func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) initBuilder() {
@@ -280,8 +278,6 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) initBuilder() {
 
 		logger := loggers.NewBasicLoggerForWriter(s.Cfg.LogLevel, &s.logBuff)
 
-		fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, config.New())
-
 		for _, f := range s.data.Files {
 			filename := filepath.Join(s.Cfg.WorkingDir, f.Name)
 			s.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(filename), 0777), qt.IsNil)
@@ -301,10 +297,12 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) initBuilder() {
 			},
 		)
 
-		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
 		cfg.Set("workingDir", s.Cfg.WorkingDir)
 
+		fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg)
+
+		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 		depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs, Running: s.Cfg.Running, Logger: logger}
 		sites, err := NewHugoSites(depsCfg)
 		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -400,9 +398,9 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) changeEvents() []fsnotify.Event {
 	return events
 }
 
-func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) readDestination(t testing.TB, fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) string {
+func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) readWorkingDir(t testing.TB, fs *hugofs.Fs, filename string) string {
 	t.Helper()
-	return s.readFileFromFs(t, fs.Destination, filename)
+	return s.readFileFromFs(t, fs.WorkingDirReadOnly, filename)
 }
 
 func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) readFileFromFs(t testing.TB, fs afero.Fs, filename string) string {
diff --git a/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go b/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
index 541878220..57cdab67b 100644
--- a/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
@@ -224,8 +224,8 @@ Content.
 	nnSite := b.H.Sites[1]
 	svSite := b.H.Sites[2]
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/en/mystatic/file1.yaml", "en")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/nn/mystatic/file1.yaml", "nn")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/mystatic/file1.yaml", "en")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/mystatic/file1.yaml", "nn")
 
 	// dumpPages(nnSite.RegularPages()...)
 
@@ -300,16 +300,16 @@ Content.
 	c.Assert(len(bundleSv.Resources()), qt.Equals, 4)
 	c.Assert(len(bundleEn.Resources()), qt.Equals, 4)
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/en/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /en/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/nn/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /nn/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/sv/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /sv/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /en/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /nn/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/sv/sect/mybundle/index.html", "image/png: /sv/sect/mybundle/logo.png")
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/sv/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for sv")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/nn/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for nn")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/en/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for en")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/en/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/sv/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
-	b.AssertFileContent("/my/project/public/nn/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/sv/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for sv")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for nn")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/sect/mybundle/featured.png", "PNG Data for en")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/sv/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/sect/mybundle/logo.png", "PNG Data")
 
 	nnSect := nnSite.getPage(page.KindSection, "sect")
 	c.Assert(nnSect, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
diff --git a/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go b/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
index ef460efa2..03b46a5fe 100644
--- a/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ import (
 func TestMinifyPublisher(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("minify", true)
 	v.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org/")
 
diff --git a/hugolib/mount_filters_test.go b/hugolib/mount_filters_test.go
index 5f4157715..688cf2558 100644
--- a/hugolib/mount_filters_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/mount_filters_test.go
@@ -101,13 +101,13 @@ Resources: {{ resources.Match "**.js" }}
 
 	assertExists := func(name string, shouldExist bool) {
 		b.Helper()
-		b.Assert(b.CheckExists(filepath.Join(workingDir, name)), qt.Equals, shouldExist)
+		b.Assert(b.CheckExists(name), qt.Equals, shouldExist)
 	}
 
 	assertExists("public/a/b/p1/index.html", true)
 	assertExists("public/a/c/p2/index.html", false)
 
-	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join(workingDir, "public", "index.html"), `
+	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join("public", "index.html"), `
 Data: map[mydata:map[b:map[b1:bval]]]:END	
 Template: false
 Resource1: js/include.js:END
diff --git a/hugolib/page_test.go b/hugolib/page_test.go
index d29a4f865..c16754cd9 100644
--- a/hugolib/page_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/page_test.go
@@ -23,7 +23,6 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/rst"
 
@@ -35,7 +34,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
@@ -1031,14 +1029,14 @@ func TestPageWithLastmodFromGitInfo(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
-	cfg := config.New()
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
-	fs.Destination = &afero.MemMapFs{}
-
 	wd, err := os.Getwd()
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
+	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.Join(wd, "testsite"))
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+
 	cfg.Set("frontmatter", map[string]any{
 		"lastmod": []string{":git", "lastmod"},
 	})
@@ -1060,8 +1058,6 @@ func TestPageWithLastmodFromGitInfo(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg.Set("languages", langConfig)
 	cfg.Set("enableGitInfo", true)
 
-	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.Join(wd, "testsite"))
-
 	b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
 
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
@@ -1314,7 +1310,7 @@ func TestChompBOM(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestPageWithEmoji(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, enableEmoji := range []bool{true, false} {
-		v := config.New()
+		v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 		v.Set("enableEmoji", enableEmoji)
 
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithViper(v)
diff --git a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
index cbad36520..f88d2e4d2 100644
--- a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
@@ -127,22 +127,22 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 
 						// Check both output formats
 						rel, filename := relFilename("/a/1/", "index.html")
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join("/work/public", filename),
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join("public", filename),
 							"TheContent",
 							"Single RelPermalink: "+rel,
 						)
 
 						rel, filename = relFilename("/cpath/a/1/", "cindex.html")
 
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join("/work/public", filename),
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.Join("public", filename),
 							"TheContent",
 							"Single RelPermalink: "+rel,
 						)
 
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/images/hugo-logo.png"), "content")
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/images/hugo-logo.png"), "content")
 
 						// This should be just copied to destination.
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/assets/pic1.png"), "content")
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/assets/pic1.png"), "content")
 
 						leafBundle1 := s.getPage(page.KindPage, "b/my-bundle/index.md")
 						c.Assert(leafBundle1, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
@@ -159,8 +159,8 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 						c.Assert(rootBundle, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 						c.Assert(rootBundle.Parent().IsHome(), qt.Equals, true)
 						if !ugly {
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/root/index.html"), "Single RelPermalink: "+relURLBase+"/root/")
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/cpath/root/cindex.html"), "Single RelPermalink: "+relURLBase+"/cpath/root/")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/root/index.html"), "Single RelPermalink: "+relURLBase+"/root/")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/cpath/root/cindex.html"), "Single RelPermalink: "+relURLBase+"/cpath/root/")
 						}
 
 						leafBundle2 := s.getPage(page.KindPage, "a/b/index.md")
@@ -202,17 +202,17 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 						}
 
 						if ugly {
-							b.AssertFileContent("/work/public/2017/pageslug.html",
+							b.AssertFileContent("public/2017/pageslug.html",
 								relPermalinker("Single RelPermalink: %s/2017/pageslug.html"),
 								permalinker("Single Permalink: %s/2017/pageslug.html"),
 								relPermalinker("Sunset RelPermalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"),
 								permalinker("Sunset Permalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"))
 						} else {
-							b.AssertFileContent("/work/public/2017/pageslug/index.html",
+							b.AssertFileContent("public/2017/pageslug/index.html",
 								relPermalinker("Sunset RelPermalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"),
 								permalinker("Sunset Permalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"))
 
-							b.AssertFileContent("/work/public/cpath/2017/pageslug/cindex.html",
+							b.AssertFileContent("public/cpath/2017/pageslug/cindex.html",
 								relPermalinker("Single RelPermalink: %s/cpath/2017/pageslug/"),
 								relPermalinker("Short Sunset RelPermalink: %s/cpath/2017/pageslug/sunset2.jpg"),
 								relPermalinker("Sunset RelPermalink: %s/cpath/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"),
@@ -220,15 +220,15 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 							)
 						}
 
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), "content")
-						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/cpath/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), "content")
-						c.Assert(b.CheckExists("/work/public/cpath/cpath/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), qt.Equals, false)
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), "content")
+						b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/cpath/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), "content")
+						c.Assert(b.CheckExists("public/cpath/cpath/2017/pageslug/c/logo.png"), qt.Equals, false)
 
 						// Custom media type defined in site config.
 						c.Assert(len(leafBundle1.Resources().ByType("bepsays")), qt.Equals, 1)
 
 						if ugly {
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/2017/pageslug.html"),
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/2017/pageslug.html"),
 								"TheContent",
 								relPermalinker("Sunset RelPermalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"),
 								permalinker("Sunset Permalink: %s/2017/pageslug/sunset1.jpg"),
@@ -247,18 +247,18 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 
 							// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/5882
 							b.AssertFileContent(
-								filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/2017/pageslug.html"), "0: Page RelPermalink: |")
+								filepath.FromSlash("public/2017/pageslug.html"), "0: Page RelPermalink: |")
 
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/cpath/2017/pageslug.html"), "TheContent")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/cpath/2017/pageslug.html"), "TheContent")
 
 							// 은행
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/c/은행/logo-은행.png"), "은행 PNG")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/c/은행/logo-은행.png"), "은행 PNG")
 
 						} else {
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/2017/pageslug/index.html"), "TheContent")
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/cpath/2017/pageslug/cindex.html"), "TheContent")
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/2017/pageslug/index.html"), "Single Title")
-							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("/work/public/root/index.html"), "Single Title")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/2017/pageslug/index.html"), "TheContent")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/cpath/2017/pageslug/cindex.html"), "TheContent")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/2017/pageslug/index.html"), "Single Title")
+							b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/root/index.html"), "Single Title")
 
 						}
 					})
@@ -397,23 +397,24 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteWitSymbolicLinksInContent(t *testing.T) {
 	}()
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
-	cfg := config.New()
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
-	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugosym")
+	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
+	workingDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugosym")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	contentDirName := "content"
 
-	contentDir := filepath.Join(workDir, contentDirName)
+	contentDir := filepath.Join(workingDir, contentDirName)
 	c.Assert(os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(contentDir, "a"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
 
 	for i := 1; i <= 3; i++ {
-		c.Assert(os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, fmt.Sprintf("symcontent%d", i)), 0777), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workingDir, fmt.Sprintf("symcontent%d", i)), 0777), qt.IsNil)
 	}
 
-	c.Assert(os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "symcontent2", "a1"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workingDir, "symcontent2", "a1"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
 
 	// Symlinked sections inside content.
 	os.Chdir(contentDir)
@@ -431,11 +432,11 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteWitSymbolicLinksInContent(t *testing.T) {
 	// Create a circular symlink. Will print some warnings.
 	c.Assert(os.Symlink(filepath.Join("..", contentDirName), filepath.FromSlash("circus")), qt.IsNil)
 
-	c.Assert(os.Chdir(workDir), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(os.Chdir(workingDir), qt.IsNil)
 
 	defer clean()
 
-	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
 	cfg.Set("contentDir", contentDirName)
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "https://example.com")
 
@@ -488,9 +489,9 @@ TheContent.
 	c.Assert(len(a1Bundle.Resources()), qt.Equals, 2)
 	c.Assert(len(a1Bundle.Resources().ByType(pageResourceType)), qt.Equals, 1)
 
-	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/a/page/index.html"), "TheContent")
-	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/symbolic1/s1/index.html"), "TheContent")
-	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/symbolic2/a1/index.html"), "TheContent")
+	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/a/page/index.html"), "TheContent")
+	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/symbolic1/s1/index.html"), "TheContent")
+	b.AssertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/symbolic2/a1/index.html"), "TheContent")
 }
 
 func TestPageBundlerHeadless(t *testing.T) {
@@ -563,12 +564,12 @@ HEADLESS {{< myShort >}}
 
 	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
 
-	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/s1/index.html"), "TheContent")
-	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/s1/l1.png"), "PNG")
+	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/s1/index.html"), "TheContent")
+	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/s1/l1.png"), "PNG")
 
-	th.assertFileNotExist(workDir + "/public/s2/index.html")
+	th.assertFileNotExist("public/s2/index.html")
 	// But the bundled resources needs to be published
-	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash(workDir+"/public/s2/l1.png"), "PNG")
+	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/s2/l1.png"), "PNG")
 
 	// No headless bundles here, please.
 	// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/6492
@@ -1321,7 +1322,7 @@ func TestPageBundlerHome(t *testing.T) {
 	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-bundler-home")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/paths.go b/hugolib/paths/paths.go
index 1ab7ae87e..f6e7b1a76 100644
--- a/hugolib/paths/paths.go
+++ b/hugolib/paths/paths.go
@@ -18,6 +18,8 @@ import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 
+	hpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
+
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
@@ -51,6 +53,7 @@ type Paths struct {
 	// pagination path handling
 	PaginatePath string
 
+	// TODO1 check usage
 	PublishDir string
 
 	// When in multihost mode, this returns a list of base paths below PublishDir
@@ -123,7 +126,7 @@ func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*Paths, error) {
 		languages = langs.Languages{&langs.Language{Lang: "en", Cfg: cfg, ContentDir: contentDir}}
 	}
 
-	absPublishDir := AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
+	absPublishDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
 	if !strings.HasSuffix(absPublishDir, FilePathSeparator) {
 		absPublishDir += FilePathSeparator
 	}
@@ -131,7 +134,7 @@ func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*Paths, error) {
 	if absPublishDir == "//" {
 		absPublishDir = FilePathSeparator
 	}
-	absResourcesDir := AbsPathify(workingDir, resourceDir)
+	absResourcesDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(workingDir, resourceDir)
 	if !strings.HasSuffix(absResourcesDir, FilePathSeparator) {
 		absResourcesDir += FilePathSeparator
 	}
@@ -254,7 +257,7 @@ func (p *Paths) GetLangSubDir(lang string) string {
 // AbsPathify creates an absolute path if given a relative path. If already
 // absolute, the path is just cleaned.
 func (p *Paths) AbsPathify(inPath string) string {
-	return AbsPathify(p.WorkingDir, inPath)
+	return hpaths.AbsPathify(p.WorkingDir, inPath)
 }
 
 // RelPathify trims any WorkingDir prefix from the given filename. If
@@ -267,12 +270,3 @@ func (p *Paths) RelPathify(filename string) string {
 
 	return strings.TrimPrefix(strings.TrimPrefix(filename, p.WorkingDir), FilePathSeparator)
 }
-
-// AbsPathify creates an absolute path if given a working dir and a relative path.
-// If already absolute, the path is just cleaned.
-func AbsPathify(workingDir, inPath string) string {
-	if filepath.IsAbs(inPath) {
-		return filepath.Clean(inPath)
-	}
-	return filepath.Join(workingDir, inPath)
-}
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go b/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go
index 4e68acafb..cd9d0593f 100644
--- a/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ import (
 func TestNewPaths(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
 
 	v.Set("languages", map[string]any{
diff --git a/hugolib/resource_chain_test.go b/hugolib/resource_chain_test.go
index c7bf8a68a..d94d389a7 100644
--- a/hugolib/resource_chain_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/resource_chain_test.go
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ Edited content.
 
 `)
 
-		b.Assert(b.Fs.Destination.Remove("public"), qt.IsNil)
+		b.Assert(b.Fs.WorkingDirWritable.Remove("public"), qt.IsNil)
 		b.H.ResourceSpec.ClearCaches()
 
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go b/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
index 2035c235f..c58795ca4 100644
--- a/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ const robotTxtTemplate = `User-agent: Googlebot
 func TestRobotsTXTOutput(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub/")
 	cfg.Set("enableRobotsTXT", true)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/rss_test.go b/hugolib/rss_test.go
index 634843e3d..5da8ea0d6 100644
--- a/hugolib/rss_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/rss_test.go
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ func TestRSSOutput(t *testing.T) {
 	th.assertFileContent(filepath.Join("public", "categories", "hugo", rssURI), "<?xml", "rss version", "hugo on RSSTest")
 
 	// RSS Item Limit
-	content := readDestination(t, fs, filepath.Join("public", rssURI))
+	content := readWorkingDir(t, fs, filepath.Join("public", rssURI))
 	c := strings.Count(content, "<item>")
 	if c != rssLimit {
 		t.Errorf("incorrect RSS item count: expected %d, got %d", rssLimit, c)
diff --git a/hugolib/shortcode_test.go b/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
index 1f2a71bc9..c2c5abe87 100644
--- a/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
@@ -1212,7 +1212,7 @@ title: "Hugo Rocks!"
 func TestShortcodeEmoji(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("enableEmoji", true)
 
 	builder := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithViper(v)
@@ -1277,7 +1277,7 @@ func TestShortcodeRef(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("plainIDAnchors=%t", plainIDAnchors), func(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Parallel()
 
-			v := config.New()
+			v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 			v.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org")
 			v.Set("blackfriday", map[string]any{
 				"plainIDAnchors": plainIDAnchors,
diff --git a/hugolib/site_output_test.go b/hugolib/site_output_test.go
index 843a13248..1a8bbadec 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_output_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_output_test.go
@@ -363,7 +363,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormats(t *testing.T) {
 			page.KindSection: []string{"JSON"},
 		}
 
-		cfg := config.New()
+		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 		cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 		outputs, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormats(t *testing.T) {
 	// Issue #4528
 	t.Run("Mixed case", func(t *testing.T) {
 		c := qt.New(t)
-		cfg := config.New()
+		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 
 		outputsConfig := map[string]any{
 			// Note that we in Hugo 0.53.0 renamed this Kind to "taxonomy",
@@ -410,7 +410,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsInvalidConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{"FOO", "JSON"},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	_, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -424,7 +424,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsEmptyConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	outputs, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsCustomFormats(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	var (
diff --git a/hugolib/site_test.go b/hugolib/site_test.go
index 1012144fb..012e824ba 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_test.go
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ func doTestShouldAlwaysHaveUglyURLs(t *testing.T, uglyURLs bool) {
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		content := readDestination(t, fs, test.doc)
+		content := readWorkingDir(t, fs, test.doc)
 
 		if content != test.expected {
 			t.Errorf("%s content expected:\n%q\ngot:\n%q", test.doc, test.expected, content)
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ func TestMainSections(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	for _, paramSet := range []bool{false, true} {
 		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("param-%t", paramSet), func(c *qt.C) {
-			v := config.New()
+			v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 			if paramSet {
 				v.Set("params", map[string]any{
 					"mainSections": []string{"a1", "a2"},
diff --git a/hugolib/site_url_test.go b/hugolib/site_url_test.go
index d668095b9..ec68d21fc 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_url_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_url_test.go
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ func TestPageCount(t *testing.T) {
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "", fs, urlFakeSource...)
 	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
 
-	_, err := s.Fs.Destination.Open("public/blue")
+	_, err := s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open("public/blue")
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Errorf("No indexed rendered.")
 	}
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ func TestPageCount(t *testing.T) {
 		"public/sd3/index.html",
 		"public/sd4.html",
 	} {
-		if _, err := s.Fs.Destination.Open(filepath.FromSlash(pth)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open(filepath.FromSlash(pth)); err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("No alias rendered: %s", pth)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/sitemap_test.go b/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
index 28d7d6eb5..cb4eea234 100644
--- a/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ func doTestSitemapOutput(t *testing.T, internal bool) {
 		"<loc>http://auth/bub/categories/hugo/</loc>",
 	)
 
-	content := readDestination(th, th.Fs, outputSitemap)
+	content := readWorkingDir(th, th.Fs, outputSitemap)
 	c.Assert(content, qt.Not(qt.Contains), "404")
 	c.Assert(content, qt.Not(qt.Contains), "<loc></loc>")
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go b/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
index 7b259a2d4..6c1aa6fd0 100644
--- a/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ type filenameContent struct {
 }
 
 func newTestSitesBuilder(t testing.TB) *sitesBuilder {
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
 
 	litterOptions := litter.Options{
@@ -475,6 +475,9 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) CreateSites() *sitesBuilder {
 		s.Fatalf("Failed to create sites: %s", err)
 	}
 
+	s.Assert(s.Fs.PublishDir, qt.IsNotNil)
+	s.Assert(s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly, qt.IsNotNil)
+
 	return s
 }
 
@@ -536,7 +539,7 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) CreateSitesE() error {
 		return errors.Wrap(err, "failed to load config")
 	}
 
-	s.Fs.Destination = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(s.Fs.Destination)
+	s.Fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(s.Fs.PublishDir)
 
 	depsCfg := s.depsCfg
 	depsCfg.Fs = s.Fs
@@ -759,8 +762,7 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertFileDoesNotExist(filename string) {
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertImage(width, height int, filename string) {
-	filename = filepath.Join(s.workingDir, filename)
-	f, err := s.Fs.Destination.Open(filename)
+	f, err := s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open(filename)
 	s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	defer f.Close()
 	cfg, err := jpeg.DecodeConfig(f)
@@ -771,17 +773,14 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertImage(width, height int, filename string) {
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertNoDuplicateWrites() {
 	s.Helper()
-	d := s.Fs.Destination.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter)
+	d := s.Fs.PublishDir.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter)
 	s.Assert(d.ReportDuplicates(), qt.Equals, "")
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) FileContent(filename string) string {
-	s.T.Helper()
+	s.Helper()
 	filename = filepath.FromSlash(filename)
-	if !strings.HasPrefix(filename, s.workingDir) {
-		filename = filepath.Join(s.workingDir, filename)
-	}
-	return readDestination(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
+	return readWorkingDir(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertObject(expected string, object any) {
@@ -797,7 +796,7 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertObject(expected string, object any) {
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertFileContentRe(filename string, matches ...string) {
-	content := readDestination(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
+	content := readWorkingDir(s.T, s.Fs, filename)
 	for _, match := range matches {
 		r := regexp.MustCompile("(?s)" + match)
 		if !r.MatchString(content) {
@@ -807,7 +806,7 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertFileContentRe(filename string, matches ...string) {
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) CheckExists(filename string) bool {
-	return destinationExists(s.Fs, filepath.Clean(filename))
+	return workingDirExists(s.Fs, filepath.Clean(filename))
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) GetPage(ref string) page.Page {
@@ -848,7 +847,7 @@ type testHelper struct {
 func (th testHelper) assertFileContent(filename string, matches ...string) {
 	th.Helper()
 	filename = th.replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(filename)
-	content := readDestination(th, th.Fs, filename)
+	content := readWorkingDir(th, th.Fs, filename)
 	for _, match := range matches {
 		match = th.replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(match)
 		th.Assert(strings.Contains(content, match), qt.Equals, true, qt.Commentf(match+" not in: \n"+content))
@@ -857,7 +856,7 @@ func (th testHelper) assertFileContent(filename string, matches ...string) {
 
 func (th testHelper) assertFileContentRegexp(filename string, matches ...string) {
 	filename = th.replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(filename)
-	content := readDestination(th, th.Fs, filename)
+	content := readWorkingDir(th, th.Fs, filename)
 	for _, match := range matches {
 		match = th.replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(match)
 		r := regexp.MustCompile(match)
@@ -870,7 +869,7 @@ func (th testHelper) assertFileContentRegexp(filename string, matches ...string)
 }
 
 func (th testHelper) assertFileNotExist(filename string) {
-	exists, err := helpers.Exists(filename, th.Fs.Destination)
+	exists, err := helpers.Exists(filename, th.Fs.PublishDir)
 	th.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	th.Assert(exists, qt.Equals, false)
 }
@@ -892,7 +891,7 @@ func loadTestConfig(fs afero.Fs, withConfig ...func(cfg config.Provider) error)
 
 func newTestCfgBasic() (config.Provider, *hugofs.Fs) {
 	mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
 
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(mm), v)
diff --git a/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go b/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
index b1ff748f4..0048d4b1b 100644
--- a/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
+++ b/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
@@ -500,16 +500,7 @@ func newDepsConfig(tp *TranslationProvider, cfg config.Provider, fs *hugofs.Fs)
 }
 
 func getConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.New()
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	v.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	v.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	v.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	v.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	v.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-	v.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
 	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(v)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/langs/language_test.go b/langs/language_test.go
index 8557d781a..e6ef94824 100644
--- a/langs/language_test.go
+++ b/langs/language_test.go
@@ -16,14 +16,13 @@ package langs
 import (
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 )
 
 func TestGetGlobalOnlySetting(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
 	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
 	v.Set("paginatePath", "page")
@@ -38,7 +37,7 @@ func TestGetGlobalOnlySetting(t *testing.T) {
 func TestLanguageParams(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("p1", "p1cfg")
 	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
 
diff --git a/markup/goldmark/codeblocks/integration_test.go b/markup/goldmark/codeblocks/integration_test.go
index 7362ef297..63b841e72 100644
--- a/markup/goldmark/codeblocks/integration_test.go
+++ b/markup/goldmark/codeblocks/integration_test.go
@@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ Position: {{ .Position | safeHTML }}
 		},
 	).Build()
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/p1/index.html", filepath.FromSlash("Position: \"content/p1.md:7:1\""))
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/p1/index.html", filepath.FromSlash("Position: \"/content/p1.md:7:1\""))
 }
 
 // Issue 9571
diff --git a/minifiers/config_test.go b/minifiers/config_test.go
index e932fe856..57f2e5659 100644
--- a/minifiers/config_test.go
+++ b/minifiers/config_test.go
@@ -16,14 +16,13 @@ package minifiers
 import (
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 )
 
 func TestConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
@@ -53,7 +52,7 @@ func TestConfig(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestConfigLegacy(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 
 	// This was a bool < Hugo v0.58.
 	v.Set("minify", true)
diff --git a/minifiers/minifiers_test.go b/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
index ce429c98a..687983310 100644
--- a/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
+++ b/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestNew(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
 
 	var rawJS string
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ func TestNew(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestJSONRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
 
 	for _, test := range []string{`{
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ func TestJSONRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestBugs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ func TestBugs(t *testing.T) {
 // Renamed to Precision in v2.7.0. Check that we support both.
 func TestDecodeConfigDecimalIsNowPrecision(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ func TestDecodeConfigDecimalIsNowPrecision(t *testing.T) {
 // Issue 9456
 func TestDecodeConfigKeepWhitespace(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
 			"html": map[string]any{
diff --git a/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go b/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
index 9ede80095..1d9da6cb3 100644
--- a/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
+++ b/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
@@ -23,7 +23,6 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/minifiers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
@@ -139,7 +138,7 @@ func TestClassCollector(t *testing.T) {
 					if skipMinifyTest[test.name] {
 						c.Skip("skip minify test")
 					}
-					v := config.New()
+					v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 					m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
 					m.Minify(media.HTMLType, w, strings.NewReader(test.html))
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go b/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
index 147e5b89c..3c91fc0dd 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
@@ -27,9 +27,7 @@ import (
 )
 
 func NewTestResourceSpec() (*resources.Spec, error) {
-	cfg := config.New()
-	cfg.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org")
-	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 
 	imagingCfg := map[string]any{
 		"resampleFilter": "linear",
diff --git a/resources/testhelpers_test.go b/resources/testhelpers_test.go
index 9941e12cf..1f7e5f93c 100644
--- a/resources/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/resources/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ func newTestResourceSpec(desc specDescriptor) *Spec {
 	cfg.Set("imaging", imagingCfg)
 
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg)
-	fs.Destination = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.Destination)
+	fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.PublishDir)
 
 	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -118,7 +118,6 @@ func newTestResourceOsFs(c *qt.C) (*Spec, string) {
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 
 	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(hugofs.Os), cfg)
-	fs.Destination = &afero.MemMapFs{}
 
 	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
diff --git a/resources/transform_test.go b/resources/transform_test.go
index cfc004224..cf0a7d421 100644
--- a/resources/transform_test.go
+++ b/resources/transform_test.go
@@ -70,13 +70,13 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 	// Verify that we publish the same file once only.
 	assertNoDuplicateWrites := func(c *qt.C, spec *Spec) {
 		c.Helper()
-		d := spec.Fs.Destination.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter)
+		d := spec.Fs.PublishDir.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter)
 		c.Assert(d.ReportDuplicates(), qt.Equals, "")
 	}
 
 	assertShouldExist := func(c *qt.C, spec *Spec, filename string, should bool) {
 		c.Helper()
-		exists, _ := helpers.Exists(filepath.FromSlash(filename), spec.Fs.Destination)
+		exists, _ := helpers.Exists(filepath.FromSlash(filename), spec.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly)
 		c.Assert(exists, qt.Equals, should)
 	}
 
diff --git a/source/filesystem_test.go b/source/filesystem_test.go
index 6343c6a41..31e3bdd70 100644
--- a/source/filesystem_test.go
+++ b/source/filesystem_test.go
@@ -77,15 +77,7 @@ func TestUnicodeNorm(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func newTestConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.New()
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	v.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	v.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	v.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	v.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	v.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
-	v.Set("assetDir", "assets")
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	_, err := langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
diff --git a/tpl/collections/collections_test.go b/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
index 3aadfae3b..8fc43318d 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
@@ -985,7 +985,5 @@ func newDeps(cfg config.Provider) *deps.Deps {
 }
 
 func newTestNs() *Namespace {
-	v := config.New()
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	return New(newDeps(v))
+	return New(newDeps(config.NewWithTestDefaults()))
 }
diff --git a/tpl/data/resources_test.go b/tpl/data/resources_test.go
index e825c2be1..44f0f9ac3 100644
--- a/tpl/data/resources_test.go
+++ b/tpl/data/resources_test.go
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestScpGetLocal(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
 	ps := helpers.FilePathSeparator
 
@@ -145,9 +145,8 @@ func TestScpGetRemoteParallel(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	for _, ignoreCache := range []bool{false} {
-		cfg := config.New()
+		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 		cfg.Set("ignoreCache", ignoreCache)
-		cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
 
 		ns := New(newDeps(cfg))
 		ns.client = cl
@@ -227,7 +226,5 @@ func newDeps(cfg config.Provider) *deps.Deps {
 }
 
 func newTestNs() *Namespace {
-	v := config.New()
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	return New(newDeps(v))
+	return New(newDeps(config.NewWithTestDefaults()))
 }
diff --git a/tpl/images/images.go b/tpl/images/images.go
index aae8b3c2b..ad3b5d9b3 100644
--- a/tpl/images/images.go
+++ b/tpl/images/images.go
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Config(path any) (image.Config, error) {
 		return config, nil
 	}
 
-	f, err := ns.deps.Fs.WorkingDir.Open(filename)
+	f, err := ns.deps.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open(filename)
 	if err != nil {
 		return image.Config{}, err
 	}
diff --git a/tpl/images/images_test.go b/tpl/images/images_test.go
index c142801b7..aa6896521 100644
--- a/tpl/images/images_test.go
+++ b/tpl/images/images_test.go
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ func TestNSConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	v := config.New()
+	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
 	v.Set("workingDir", "/a/b")
 
 	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Fs: hugofs.NewMem(v)})