path: root/web/mono-beginning-windows.xml

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?>

<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.1.2//EN" []>
<article>

  <articleinfo>

    <!-- Use "HOWTO", "mini HOWTO", "FAQ" in title, if appropriate -->
    <title>Mono Beginners HOWTO for Windows users</title>

   <author>
       <firstname>Jaime</firstname>
       <surname>Anguiano Olarra</surname>
       <affiliation>
          <address><email>jaime@geneura.ugr.es</email></address>
       </affiliation>
     </author>

   <author>
       <firstname>Hinne</firstname>
       <surname>Hettema</surname>
       <affiliation>
          <address><email>h.hettema@auckland.ac.nz</email></address>
       </affiliation>
     </author>

     <pubdate>2002-08</pubdate>

     <!-- Most recent revision goes at the top; list in descending order -->
     <!-- All dates specified in ISO "YYYY-MM-DD" format -->
     <revhistory>
       <revision>
          <revnumber>0.1</revnumber>
          <date>2002-08-05</date>
          <authorinitials>JA</authorinitials>
          <revremark>First release</revremark>
       </revision>
     </revhistory>

     <!-- Provide a good abstract; a couple of sentences is sufficient -->
     <abstract>
        <para>
	 The goal of this document is to guide people through the setup of a Mono
         framework in a Windows box. Because some people might want to just test
         Mono a bit and use the compiler, etc, I have made two distinctions, one
         for the Mono user that only wants to get precompiled binaries and another
         for the one how wants to build Mono from the CVS and probably contribute
         to the project actively. Each kind of user has to read the corresponding
         part of this document. I hope a lot of Windows users will get a nice 
         approach to the free software world by starting using Mono.
	</para>
     </abstract>

  </articleinfo>

<sect1 id="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>

<para>
Mono is an open source implementation of the Common Language Infrastructure
(CLI) specified in ECMA standard 335. It comes with a C# compiler and
provides an extensible platform to develop and run applications that
are interoperable with Microsoft .NET.
</para>

<para>
Mono is not finished--it is a project still under development. As a
result, installation and configuration may not be as smooth as you
will be used to from other Linux or Windows applications. Nevertheless, 
mono is in a state that will allow you to get it up and running and gain
experience with it--which is, I would suggest, a very smart thing to do.
</para>

<para>
This document is aimed at the mono beginner, and aims to present a complete
view of a minimal installation, which will allow you to experiment with
mono to some degree. It also describes some of those experiments. We
expect that after reading this document you'll go on to do either of
two things:
</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Continue to contribute to the mono project in some shape or form. The
website has some ideas and suggestions under the heading 'Contributing'.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Continue to write applications that run in mono. 
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>

<para>
We hope this document will be useful to you in your first steps with mono.
Happy hacking!
</para>

<sect2 id="disclaimer"> <title>Disclaimer</title>

<para> 
No liability for the contents of this document can be accepted.
Use the concepts, examples and information at your own risk.  There may
be errors and inaccuracies, that could be damaging to your system.
Proceed with caution, and although this is highly unlikely, the author(s)
do not take any responsibility.  
</para>

<para> 
All copyrights are held by their by their respective owners,
unless specifically noted otherwise.  Use of a term in this document
should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or
service mark.  Naming of particular products or brands should not be
seen as endorsements.  
</para> 
</sect2>

<!-- Give credit where credit is due...very important --> 
<sect2 id="credits"> <title>Credits / Contributors</title>

<para> Credits are due to </para>
<itemizedlist> 
<listitem> 
<para>Hinne Hettema <email>h.hettema@auckland.ac.nz</email> 
for creating the xml template I used for this document, for 
reviewing and make an excellent job with the other HOWTO and
for his feedback. As you can see a lot of his work has been
included in this document too. 
</para> 
</listitem> 
<listitem>
<para>
The Mono Hackers.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> 
</sect2>

<!-- Feedback --> 
<sect2 id="feedback"> <title>Feedback</title>

<para> 
Feedback is most certainly welcome for this document. Send your
additions, comments and criticisms to the following email address:
<email>mono-docs-list@ximian.com</email>. I am lurking on this list 
and will maintain this document as required.  
</para> 
</sect2>
</sect1>

<!-- This is the preamble stuff over with the rest of document follows... --> 
<sect1 id="installation"> 
<title> Installing Mono</title>

<sect2 id="obtaining"> 
<title>Obtaining Mono</title> 
<para> 
In order to obtain the required software you just need to visit the
Mono download page at http://www.go-mono.org/download or any of the
related sites. 
</para>

<para>
You'll be able to complete everything in this document if you just install
the runtime, but taking a look at the compiler package is well worth the
effort. The compiler is written in C# and is 'self hosting' which means it
is able to compile itself. 
</para>

<para>
This page also lists the current versions of the software 
mono depends on. Make sure that your system has all the 
required versions, otherwise mono won't compile.
</para>

</sect2>

<sect2 id="easyinstall">
<title>Installing Mono on Windows, the easy way</title>
<para>
       Oh. This is a very easy task now. If you just want to take a look at
       the possibilities of Mono get the Mono installer from the site of
       Johannes Roith &lt;johannes\@jroith.de&gt;: 
</para>

<para>
       http://www.superin.informativ.net/mono/mono.htm. You can get a link in 
</para>
<para>
       the download section of the Mono site too: http://www.go-mono.org/download
</para>
<para>
       Then you just need a Windows machine. Better use 
       Windows 2000 Professional. </para>
<para>
       Once you've got it, run the installer. 
</para>
<para>
       Remember, building your own Mono runtime and compiler from the sources 
       is strongly recommended. You won't discover the power of Mono until
       you get it made this way. If you feel hungry about real programming with
       Mono, proceed like in the next section.
</para>
</sect2>

<sect2 id="hardinstall">
<title>Building Mono under Windows</title>
<itemizedlist>
 <listitem>
   <para>
    1.- Get Windows 2000 Professional or any Windows System supporting .NET SDK.
        Avoid using XP and the redistributable version of the SDK (necessary for 
        WinME, etc).
   </para>
 </listitem>

 <listitem>
    <para>
    2.- Get the latest Cygwin distribution, be sure you install the GNU Build Tools 
        packages. Take the openssh package if you plan to contribute to the project.
        If you feel insecure about the packages you need to install, install all of
        them, of course, Text, Admin, Games and Web are not necessary at all and you
        can pass of those. The fitness of your choice will depend of your knowledge 
        on Linux and/or Cygwin. If in doubt install all. 
    </para>
 </listitem>

 <listitem>
   <para>
    3.- Install the .NET SDK.
   </para>
 </listitem>
 <listitem>
   <para>
    4.- Install Cygwin.
   </para>
  </listitem>
  <listitem>
   <para>
    5.- Get http://www.go-mono.org/mono-build-w32.sh and put it into your home 
        directory in the cygwin setup.
   </para>
  </listitem>

  <listitem>
    <para>
    6.- Enter your cygwin environment. If you have an account in the mono cvs, then 
        export the variables as shown in http://www.go-mono.org/ccvs.html
    </para>

    <programlisting>
             This means. Enter: export CVSROOT=user@mono-cvs.ximian.com:/cvs/public

             and export CVS_RSH=ssh
    </programlisting>
   <para>
             If you have no account DO NOTHING.
   </para>
  </listitem>
  <listitem>
   <para>
    7.- Enter: 
    <programlisting>
	export ACLOCAL_FLAGS="-I /usr/local/share/aclocal" 
        and this: export PKG_CONFIG_PATH="/usr/local/bin"
    </programlisting>
	</para>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <para>
    8.- Run the script (mono-build-w32.sh) 
     </para>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
    <para>
    9.- All should work fine know and you should see it download what necessary and 
        build mono.
    </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</sect2>

<sect2 id="errors">
<title>Troubleshooting</title>
<para>    
    If you have noticed problems during step 8 and the execution stops because of 
    errors as I cannot find that or such library or alike, try to: 
</para>

<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
 <para>
    1.- Create a directory mono-temp for example. 
 </para>
 </listitem>

  <listitem>
  <para>
    2.- Move and unzip all the zips the mono-build script downloads to /usr/local 
        to that new directory. Do it one by one, copying the content of the created 
        subdirectories (include, bin, etc) to their respectives in /usr/local. Take 
        care, some libraries like libglib... must go into /usr/local/bin and not 
        into /usr/local/lib.
   </para>
  </listitem>

 <listitem>
   <para>
    3.- Jump into the /usr/local/mono directory and run ./autogen.sh
    </para>
  </listitem>

   <listitem>
   <para>
    4.- Then run ./configure and after it: make and finally: make install.
   </para>
  </listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</sect2>
</sect1>

<sect1 id="running">
<title>Running mono</title>
<sect2 id="basic">
<title>Basic steps</title>
<para>
To work with mono, you first have to create a C# program. Open up 
your favourite editor, and type in the following code:
</para>
<programlisting>
using System;

class Hello
{
public static void Main(String[] args)
	{
	Console.WriteLine("mono:: is alive and well...");

	for (int i = 0; i < args.Length; i++)
		Console.WriteLine("Argument {0} = {1}", i, args[i]);
	}
}
</programlisting>

<para>
Save the file as hello.cs. To compile this into a working program, 
type mcs hello.cs. If you get the following:
</para>
<programlisting>
 mcs hello.cs
RESULT: 0
</programlisting>
<para>
you know the compile worked fine. If you see some strange error
messages including the word 'parser' somewhere, you made a mistake in
your program. Fix this up first.
</para>

<para>
You are now ready to execute your first mono program.  To execute 
the code, type
</para>

<programlisting>
 mono hello.exe arg1 arg2 arg 3
</programlisting>
<para>
(where we have given some arguments just for fun) and you'll 
see the following:
</para>

<programlisting>
mono:: is alive and well...
Argument 0 = arg1
Argument 1 = arg2
Argument 2 = arg
Argument 3 = 3
RESULT: 0
</programlisting>
<para>
As you can see, mono printed the line "mono:: is alive and well" 
and printed the list of arguments. This completes the creation 
and execution of your first mono program.
</para>
</sect2>

<sect2 id="interpreter">
<title>Interpreter</title>
<para>
But mono will allow you to do more. First of all, mono is the 
compiled mono execution environment which uses the Just in 
Time (JIT) compiler. Mono also comes with an interpreted 
environment, which can be accessed using the command 'mint' 
as follows
</para>
<programlisting>
 mint hello.exe arg1 arg 2
mono:: is alive and well...
Argument 0 = arg1
Argument 1 = arg
Argument 2 = 2
</programlisting>
<para>
As you can see, it makes no difference to mono output which 
environment you use, but what happens under the hood is very 
different. If you use 'mono' as the command line tool, you 
call the 'production' execution environment which will read 
your portable executable (PE) file, and call the just in 
time (JIT) compiler to compile the PE code down to machine 
level code (in my case, an x86 architecture) after which 
it is executed.
</para>
<para>
If you use mint, the JIT is not used, and the PE code is 
interpreted into x86 instructions for execution. In fact, 
for our simple 'hello' mint is slightly faster. The point 
is that the JIT compiler will take some time to compile the 
code of our program and store it in some location in memory, 
but the subsequent execution of the code is faster with mono.
</para>

<para>
After this simple run of mono, it is time to play with some options. 
I won't cover these in detail since there are quite a few, and also because
I assume you downloaded mono to hack it around in the first place. So
I'll leave some pointers.
</para>


<sect3 id="debugging">
<title>Debugging</title>
<para>
Mono supports a debugging option when you specify the "-d" flag while running
the runtime. Utilising this flag will get you a significant amount of output,
and it may be an idea to specify an output file as well. The interesting aspect
of this file is that it allows you to see to some extent (quite precisely,
actually) what the JIT compiler is up to.
</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="statistics">
<title>Statistics</title>
<para>
It is also possible to collect some runtime statistics on your program. These
will give you some idea of the resource utilisation of your program.
</para>
<programlisting>
 mono --stats hello.exe
mono:: is alive and well...
RESULT: 0
Mono Jit statistics
Compiled methods:       58
Methods cache lookup:   15
Method trampolines:     698
Basic blocks:           188
Max basic blocks:       15
Allocated vars:         238
Analyze stack repeat:   61
Compiled CIL code size: 2450
Native code size:       10167
Max code size ratio:    7.13 (FileStream::FlushBuffer)
Biggest method:         1016 (StreamWriter::Write)
Code reallocs:          27
Allocated code size:    22073
Inlineable methods:     17
Inlined methods:        22

Created object count:   18
Initialized classes:    127
Used classes:           37
Static data size:       288
VTable data size:       8292
</programlisting>
</sect3>

</sect2>

<sect2 id="ILAsm_code" >
<title>Inspecting IL Assembly code</title>
<para>
Mono also provides a small tool that will let you disassemble 
the executable (.exe) file so you can have a peek 
under the hood. This tool is monodis, and is run as 
follows:

</para>
<programlisting>
 monodis hello.exe
.assembly extern mscorlib
{
  .ver 0:0:0:0
}
.assembly 'hello'
{
  .hash algorithm 0x00008004
  .ver  0:0:0:0
}
  .class private auto ansi beforefieldinit Hello
        extends [mscorlib]System.Object
  {

    // method line 1
    .method public hidebysig  specialname  rtspecialname
           instance default void .ctor()  cil managed
    {
        // Method begins at RVA 0x20ec
        // Code size 7 (0x7)
        .maxstack 8
        IL_0000: ldarg.0
        IL_0001: call instance void System.Object::.ctor()
        IL_0006: ret
    } // end of method instance default void .ctor()

    // method line 2
    .method public static
           default void Main(string[] args)  cil managed
    {
        // Method begins at RVA 0x20f4
        .entrypoint
        // Code size 56 (0x38)
        .maxstack 5
        .locals init (
                int32   V_0,
                int32   V_1)
        IL_0000: ldstr "mono:: is alive and well..."
        IL_0005: call void System.Console::WriteLine(string)
        IL_000a: ldc.i4.0
        IL_000b: stloc.0
        IL_000c: ldloc.0
        IL_000d: ldarg.s 0
        IL_000f: ldlen
        IL_0010: clt
        IL_0012: brfalse IL_0037

        IL_0017: ldstr "Argument {0} = {1}"
        IL_001c: ldloc.0
        IL_001d: box [mscorlib]System.Int32
        IL_0022: ldarg.s 0
        IL_0024: ldloc.0
        IL_0025: ldelem.ref
        IL_0026: call void System.Console::WriteLine(string, object, object)
        IL_002b: nop
        IL_002c: ldloc.0
        IL_002d: ldc.i4.1
        IL_002e: add
        IL_002f: stloc.1
        IL_0030: ldloc.1
        IL_0031: stloc.0
        IL_0032: br IL_000c

        IL_0037: ret
    } // end of method default void Main(string[] args)

  } // end of type Hello


</programlisting>
<para>
This is the listing of the code of your program in a language 
called IL assembly, or Common Intermediate Language (CIL). The 
CIL provides the portability of the mono platform, and ensures 
that code compiled with Microsoft's .NET framework will work 
on mono and vice versa. 
</para>
</sect2>

<sect2 id="man_pages">
<title>Man pages</title>

<para>
Mono has man pages already installed, and generally, typing <command>
man</command> before the command you wish to execute should help in 
getting a list of the options. In many cases, it's still up to you
to figure out what they do.
</para>

</sect2>


</sect1>


<sect1 id="problems">
<title>Problems</title>
<para> 
With mono being as new as it is, it is likely that you will have some
problems with installation. The following are some ideas to help you
out in a bind:
</para>

<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> 
See the Ximian Bugzilla page to find out if there is a bug
report about your specific issue.
</para>
</listitem>

<listitem>
<para>Read this document.  If it does not solve your problem, we want to
know about it. Please send a message to the email address listed for
feedback at the beginning of the document.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem>

<para> 
Visit the mono mailing lists' archives and do a little
research in there for threads talking about the problem you have.
</para>
</listitem>

<listitem>
<para> 
If you still cannot correct the problem, send a message to the
mono list. When you do this, please be as precise as possible--i.e.
mention the system you are running, the version of mono that you have the 
problem with, and give any error codes and other output that might appear.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>

</sect1>


<!-- Legal Sections --> <sect1 id="copyright">
 <title>Copyright and License</title>

 <!-- The LDP recommends, but doesn't require, the GFDL --> <para>
     This document, <emphasis>Running mono</emphasis>, is copyrighted
     (c) 2002 by <emphasis>Hinne Hettema</emphasis> and
     <emphasis>Jaime Anguiano Olarra</emphasis>.  Permission is
     granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
     terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later
     version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant
     Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts.
     A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free
     Documentation License".
 </para>

<sect2 id="gfdl"> <title>GNU Free Documentation License</title> 
<!-- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) -->

<para>Version 1.1, March 2000</para>

<blockquote> <para>Copyright (C) 2000  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA	02111-1307  USA Everyone is
permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document,
but changing it is not allowed.</para> </blockquote>

<sect3 id="gfdl-0"> <title>PREAMBLE</title>

<para>The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook,
    or other written document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure
    everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with
    or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
    Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher
    a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered
    responsible for modifications made by others.</para>

<para>This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that
    derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the
    same sense.  It complements the GNU General Public License, which
    is a copyleft license designed for free software.</para>

<para>We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals
    for free software, because free software needs free documentation:
    a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms
    that the software does.  But this License is not limited to software
    manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject
    matter or whether it is published as a printed book.  We recommend
    this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction
    or reference.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-1"> <title>APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS</title>

<para>This License applies to any manual or other work that
    contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
    distributed under the terms of this License.  The "Document", below,
    refers to any such manual or work.	Any member of the public is a
    licensee, and is addressed as "you".</para>

<para>A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work
    containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim,
    or with modifications and/or translated into another language.</para>

<para>A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter
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<para>The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections
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    in the notice that says that the Document is released under this
    License.</para>

<para>The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that
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<para>A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a
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    A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup
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<para>Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include
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<para>The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page
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</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-2"> <title>VERBATIM COPYING</title>

<para>You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium,
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<para>You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated
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</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-3"> <title>COPYING IN QUANTITY</title>

<para>If you publish printed copies of the Document numbering more
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<para>If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to
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<para>If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
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<para>It is requested, but not required, that you contact the
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</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-4"> <title>MODIFICATIONS</title>

<para>You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the
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    with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus
    licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version
    to whoever possesses a copy of it.	In addition, you must do these
    things in the Modified Version:</para>

<orderedlist numeration="upperalpha"> <listitem><para>Use in the
Title Page
      (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
      Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if
      there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document).
      You may use the same title as a previous version if the original
      publisher of that version gives permission.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>List on the Title Page,
      as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
      authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together
      with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all
      of its principal authors, if it has less than five).</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>State on the Title page
      the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
      publisher.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Preserve all the
      copyright notices of the Document.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Add an appropriate
      copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
      copyright notices.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Include, immediately
      after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
      permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this
      License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Preserve in that license
      notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
      Texts given in the Document's license notice.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Include an unaltered
      copy of this License.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Preserve the section
      entitled "History", and its title, and add to it an item stating at
      least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified
      Version as given on the Title Page.  If there is no section entitled
      "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year,
      authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page,
      then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the
      previous sentence.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Preserve the network
      location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
      a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network
      locations given in the Document for previous versions it was
      based on.  These may be placed in the "History" section.	You may
      omit a network location for a work that was published at least four
      years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of
      the version it refers to gives permission.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>In any section entitled
      "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", preserve the section's title,
      and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each
      of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given
      therein.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Preserve all the
      Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in
      their titles.  Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered
      part of the section titles.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Delete any section
      entitled "Endorsements".	Such a section may not be included in
      the Modified Version.</para>
</listitem>

<listitem><para>Do not retitle any
      existing section as "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with
      any Invariant Section.</para>
</listitem> </orderedlist> <para>If the Modified Version includes new
front-matter sections
    or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no
    material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate
    some or all of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their
    titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's
    license notice.  These titles must be distinct from any other section
    titles.</para>

<para>You may add a section entitled "Endorsements", provided it
    contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
    parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
    been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of
    a standard.</para>

<para>You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover
    Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
    of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one passage
    of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
    through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the Document already
    includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
    by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
    you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
    permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.</para>

<para>The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by
    this License give permission to use their names for publicity for
    or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-5"> <title>COMBINING DOCUMENTS</title>

<para>You may combine the Document with other documents released
    under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for
    modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of
    the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified,
    and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in
    its license notice.</para>

<para>The combined work need only contain one copy of this
    License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced
    with a single copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with
    the same name but different contents, make the title of each such
    section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the
    name of the original author or publisher of that section if known,
    or else a unique number.  Make the same adjustment to the section
    titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of
    the combined work.</para>

<para>In the combination, you must combine any sections entitled
    "History" in the various original documents, forming one section
    entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections entitled
    "Acknowledgements", and any sections entitled "Dedications".
    You must delete all sections entitled "Endorsements."</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-6"> <title>COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS</title>

<para>You may make a collection consisting of the Document and
    other documents released under this License, and replace the
    individual copies of this License in the various documents with a
    single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you
    follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of
    the documents in all other respects.</para>

<para>You may extract a single document from such a collection,
    and distribute it individually under this License, provided you
    insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow
    this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
    that document.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-7"> <title>AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS</title>
<para>A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other
    separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume
    of a storage or distribution medium, does not as a whole count
    as a Modified Version of the Document, provided no compilation
    copyright is claimed for the compilation.  Such a compilation is
    called an "aggregate", and this License does not apply to the other
    self-contained works thus compiled with the Document, on account
    of their being thus compiled, if they are not themselves derivative
    works of the Document.</para>

<para>If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to
    these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than
    one quarter of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts
    may be placed on covers that surround only the Document within
    the aggregate.  Otherwise they must appear on covers around the
    whole aggregate.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-8"> <title>TRANSLATION</title>

<para>Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
    distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
    Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
    permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
    translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
    original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include
    a translation of this License provided that you also include the
    original English version of this License.  In case of a disagreement
    between the translation and the original English version of this
    License, the original English version will prevail.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-9"> <title>TERMINATION</title> <para>You may not copy,
modify, sublicense, or distribute the
    Document except as expressly provided for under this License.
    Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the
    Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under
    this License.  However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
    from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated
    so long as such parties remain in full compliance.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-10"> <title>FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE</title>

<para>The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised
    versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from
    time to time.  Such new versions will be similar
    in spirit to the present version, but may differ in
    detail to address new problems or concerns.  See <ulink
    url="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/">http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/</ulink>.</para>

<para>Each version of the License is given a distinguishing
    version number.  If the Document specifies that a particular
    numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies
    to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions
    either of that specified version or of any later version that has
    been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
    If the Document does not specify a version number of this License,
    you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
    Free Software Foundation.</para>
</sect3>

<sect3 id="gfdl-11"> <title>How to use this License for your
documents</title>

<para>To use this License in a document you have written, include
    a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright
    and license notices just after the title page:</para>

<blockquote><para> Copyright (c)  YEAR	YOUR NAME.
      Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
      document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
      Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software
      Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES,
      with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover
      Texts being LIST.  A copy of the license is included in the section
      entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".
</para></blockquote>

<para>If you have no Invariant Sections, write "with no Invariant
    Sections" instead of saying which ones are invariant.  If you
    have no Front-Cover Texts, write "no Front-Cover Texts" instead of
    "Front-Cover Texts being LIST"; likewise for Back-Cover Texts.</para>

<para>If your document contains nontrivial examples of program
    code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your
    choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public
    License, to permit their use in free software.</para>
</sect3> </sect2> </sect1>

</article>




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